Phytochemical and Pharmacological Potential of Pithecellobium dulce: A Review

INTRODUCTION

Pithecellobium dulce is renowned for its strong pharmacological and therapeutic potential and is rich in bioactive compounds, including alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, and saponins (Shukla et al., 2024). Traditionally used in folk medicine, various parts of the plant exhibit diverse medicinal properties, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antidiabetic, cardioprotective, antidiarrheal, larvicidal, and ovicidal activities, as demonstrated in preclinical studies, primarily involving animal and in vitro models (Dhanisha et al., 2022).

METHODOLOGY

The present review was undertaken to compile and critically evaluate the available literature on the phytochemical composition, traditional uses, and pharmacological activities of Pithecellobium dulce. Relevant scientific publications were retrieved from internationally recognized electronic databases, including PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The literature search was performed using combinations of keywords such as "Pithecellobium dulce", "ethnomedicinal uses", "phytochemistry", "bioactive compounds", "pharmacological potential", "antioxidant", "antidiabetic", "hepatoprotective", "antimicrobial", "antivenom", and "hypolipidemic activity".

Peer-reviewed research articles, review papers, and relevant book chapters published in English up to 2025 were considered. Studies describing the taxonomy, botanical characteristics, traditional medicinal applications, phytochemical constituents, and biological activities of Pithecellobium dulce were included in the review. Additional references were identified through manual screening of the bibliographies of selected articles to ensure comprehensive coverage of the available evidence.

The retrieved literature was critically evaluated and categorized according to major themes, including botanical description, ethnomedicinal significance, phytochemical profile, and pharmacological properties. Findings from in vitro, in vivo, and preclinical investigations were synthesized to provide an updated overview of the therapeutic potential of Pithecellobium dulce. Duplicate records, non-peer-reviewed sources, and studies with insufficient scientific information were excluded from consideration.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Taxonomical and morphological description

Pithecellobium dulce is native to Tropical America and is an evergreen, thorny tree widely cultivated in India. It belongs to a genus comprising 19 species and is commonly known as Jungle Jalebi in Hindi, Seemantha in Kannada, and Kodukkapuli in Tamil (Murugesan et al., 2019). The mature tree possesses hard, flaking grey bark, kidney-shaped lobules, and paired leaflets. Each leaf bears a thin spine measuring approximately 2-15 mm, while the leaflets are about 2-2.5 × 1-2 cm in size. The plant produces hairy crown blossoms with small white flower heads of about 1 cm and flowers characterized by a tubular calyx enclosing nearly 50 stamens. Upon ripening, the spiral pods, measuring approximately 10-15 × 1 cm, turn reddish-brown in colour (Srinivas et al., 2018).

• Botanical Name: Pithecellobium dulce Benth.
• Kingdom: Plantae.
• Division: Tracheophyta.
• Class: Eudicots.
• Order: Fabales.
• Family: Fabaceae.
• Subfamily: Mimosoideae.
• Genus: Pithecellobium.
• Species: Pithecellobium dulce (Vaidya and Vishwakarma, 2020).

Ethnomedicinal Uses

In traditional medicine in Asia and Africa, the plant has been used to treat dermatological diseases, gastrointestinal ailments, and inflammatory conditions (Mule et al., 2005). The leaves are employed as diuretics and antidiabetics, controlling hyperglycaemia and urinary problems (Tejashwini et al., 2015). The bark's high tannin content complies with tradition to treat chronic dysentery, bleeding gums, ulcers and mouth sores through an astringent and haemostatic decoction (Kulkarni and Jamakhandi, 2018). The seeds are used to treat skin disorders like leprosy, sores that won't heal as well as mouth diseases including toothaches and swelling of the gums (Singh et al., 2023). Its fruit peel’s high phenolic and flavonoid content means it is helpful in the treatment of inflammation-based illnesses, digestive disorders generally, and loss of strength overall (Selvakumar et al., 2023).

Bioactive Potential

Its bark, seeds, and leaves are rich in tannins, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, and other bioactive compounds, making it medicinally significant (Zapesochnaya et al., 1980). Sterols, coumarins, and flavonoids were among the 67 bioactive components found in its leaves by UPLC-ESI-MS/MS analysis, creating a thorough chemical fingerprint for the species (Elhewehy et al., 2025). A 2013 study confirmed the antibacterial qualities of Pithecellobium dulce, an herb that has long been used in traditional medicine. Measurable antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus was demonstrated using ethanolic leaf extracts, supporting ethnomedical claims of wound-healing and anti-infective qualities (Kumar et al., 2013). Wood bark and leaf extracts exhibited high levels of total phenolics and flavonoids, which were strongly associated with their in vitro radical-scavenging activities (DPPH, hydroxyl, and nitric oxide assays) and metal-chelating ability, highlighting these tissues as valuable sources of antioxidants (Katekhaye and Kale, 2012). Through DPPH and superoxide radical scavenging, seed extracts showed notable antioxidant capacity, supporting their traditional use in the treatment of illnesses linked to oxidative stress (Nagmoti et al., 2012). It can control blood glucose levels comes from antidiabetic studies (Sugumaran and Vetrichelvan, 2008).

Ethno-linguistic nomenclature of Pithecellobium dulce

The vernacular names of P. dulce are listed in Table 1.

Synonyms of Pithecellobium dulce

The approved species name and synonyms of Pithecellobium dulce are presented in Table 2 (Bharathi et al., 2023; Kotb et al., 2024; Ocampo-Lopez et al., 2023; Thamo et al., 2023).

ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF PHYTOCONSTITUENTS

The important phytoconstituents that have been isolated from various plant parts of Pithecellobium dulce and their bioactive fractions are described below.

Seed and coat

GC-MS analysis enabled the identification of the phytochemicals present in the seed extract of Pithecellobium dulce, which included a large number of compounds that had molecular weights ranging from 90-353 g/mol and a potentially active compound (Shafeen et al., 2025). The methanolic extract (2 mL, 1:10 w/v) of seed and seed coat was then mixed with 2.8 mL distilled water, 0.1 mL 10% aluminium chloride solution, and 0.1 mL 1M potassium acetate solutions, and the absorbance at 425nm was read using a spectrophotometer after a 30-min interval at room temperature. The amount of flavonoids was measured using a rutin calibration curve, and the results were reported as mg rutin equivalents per g of dry extract (Shafeen et al., 2025). The seed extract contains D-turanose (55.8%), inositol derivatives (6.5%), hexadecanoic acid (12%), dihydroxyacetone (1.6%), D-gluco-hexodialdose (0.8%), 2-deoxy-galactopyranose (0.2%), ribitol (0.2%), D-mannose (0.2%), and altronic acid (0.65%). The seeds contain high sugar composition, especially D-Turanose (3-O-α-D-glucopyranosyl-D-fructose). These sugars have numerous biological properties, such as antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer properties (El-Shahir et al., 2022). High concentration of both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids was found to be present in the extract which is attributed to its antibacterial properties (Khanzada et al., 2013). The fatty acids can be utilized to kill bacterial cells by disrupting their membranes or inhibiting their formation (Bazaid et al., 2018; McGaw et al., 2002).

Aril

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) analysis evidenced from the extract of ripe fruit of Pithecellobium dulce that gallic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, catechin, and rutin were the predominant phenolic components. Phenolics derived from aril directly inhibited the two enzymes - collagenase and hyaluronidase - which are important in the aging process of the skin (Chiangnoon et al., 2023). Dried aril contains very high insoluble hemicellulose and soluble pectin. The prebiotic potential of the aril is highlighted by the fact that these fibres are transformed in vivo into Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs), mainly propionic and butyric acids (Lopez-Angulo et al., 2025). The effect of drying technique on the phenolic profile was determined by HPLC-DAD analysis of Pithecellobium dulce arils. The most important components were found to be ferulic, hydroxyphenyl acetic, p-coumaric, and chlorogenic acids. These heat-sensitive phenolics base showed better retention by freeze-drying than by oven drying and were maintained for their apoptosis-inducing capacity in SW480 colon cancer cells (Hernández-Bolio et al., 2025). The fermentation aril produces bioavailable fermentation products, including simple phenolic acids and dihydro-resveratrol from complex polyphenols; additionally, short-chain fatty acids and bioactive peptides are increased as an added boost to the nutritional and functional capability of an aril (Sivamaruthi et al., 2023).

The chemical constituents present in the seed, coat and aril of Pithecellobium dulce are given in Figure 1.

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Bark

Pithecellobium dulce bark reported 63.45% of cellulose, 14.56% of hemicellulose and 8.45% of lignin contents based on a 2013 study. The high cellulose-to-lignin ratio imparts significant tensile strength and thermal stability (up to 339ºC), which confirmed their suitability for green composite reinforcement (Khandare et al., 2024). A 2025 study of bark and leaves found quercetin-rich leaves and bark with phenolic acids and glycosides such as olein. Bark metabolites possess strong anti-venomous and anti-inflammatory properties absent in the aril (Al-Obaidi and Al-Mohammedi, n.d.). By reducing the lignin content from 27.5% to 21.9% through photooxidative alteration of its lignocellulosic matrix, optical transparency was improved while structural integrity was preserved. These results demonstrate the viability of creating translucent bio composites from woody biomass for environmentally friendly uses in building and optics (Piedra-Ambriz et al., 2025). Bark has a high biosorptive efficiency for removing hexavalent chromium, and FTIR confirms that it contains a lot of -OH and -NH₂ groups. The biomass works best as a cation exchanger at pH 5, which supports its application in sustainable wastewater valorisation (Rosca et al., 2023). The chemical constituents present in the bark and gum of Pithecellobium dulce are given in Figure 2.

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Leaf

Pithecellobium dulce leaf extract has a function as a green reductant in the combustion-based production of CuO nanoparticles. The leaf's usefulness in green catalysis outside of biomedical applications was highlighted by FTIR confirmation of O-H and C=C functional groups, with polyphenolic chemicals serving as catalysts in the Ullmann coupling for diphenyl ether (Kalaivani and Mathubala, 2025). The leaf extract showed 66.7% pediculicidal efficacy, outperforming bark/fruit, via metabolite-driven disruption (Gudulkar et al., 2025). The activated charcoal prepared from the leaves of Pithecellobium dulce exhibited a high surface area, with acidic groups such as lactones, phenols, thus allowing electrostatic adsorption and the ensuing effective elimination of cationic dyes like Methylene Blue from wastewater (Bhuvaneswari et al., 2023). The leaves of Pithecellobium dulce acted on CuO nanoparticles by reducing them with amines and carbonyls; further, the extract of the leaf acted through acidic groups with Methylene Blue when converted into activated carbon for bacterial action against S. aureus (Vasanharaja et al., 2023). Ag ions were rapidly reduced to AgNPs, for which the tannins and flavonoids acted as the key bio-reductants. The study highlights the environment-friendly prospects of this approach as a natural alternative to chemical synthesis techniques (Prabhavathi et al., 2023). The leaf extract acted as a stabilizer in the synthesis of the ZnO nanoparticles. Further, its phytochemicals bio-capped the particles to control their size in the range of 20-30 nm, which was important for retaining stability and biological compatibility of the nanoparticles (Senthilkumar et al., 2023). The chemical constituents present in the leaf of Pithecellobium dulce are given in Figure 3.

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Root

The root extract of Pithecellobium dulce has strong bactericidal properties in relation to Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and E. coli, which are similar to those of conventional antibiotics as a result of the presence of flavonoids and polyphenols that disrupt the bacterial cell wall for penetration by breaking it down. The remarkable pharmacological property of the plant makes its traditional usage for the treatment of inflammation and gastrointestinal diseases valid (Bhat et al., 2018). Compared analyses demonstrate the root's characteristic fatty acids and trace elements that are quite distinct from the characteristic high lipids of the seeds, with approximately 10.6% crude protein content, an impressive quantity among root structures but lower than seeds, and supplemented by valuable minerals like potassium and zinc for better health potential (Khanzada et al., 2013). In toxin-induced liver injury, ethanolic extracts of Pithecellobium dulce root show significant hepatoprotective activity. Phytochemical screening revealed triterpenoids, glycosides, and catechol-type tannins that lower serum enzymes such as Serum Glutamate Oxaloacetate Transaminase, Serum Glutamate Pyruvate Transaminase reflecting strong antioxidant activity and membrane-stabilizing potential (Thirumalai et al., 2012).

Flowers

Pithecellobium dulce flowers are rich in flavonoid glycosides, particularly quercetin, rutin, and kaempferol and phenolic compounds such as steroids and triterpenoidal saponins, which support their traditional use in mild inflammation (Sahu and Saxena, 2013; Bamniya and Verma, 2012; Mishra et al., 2011). Antioxidant tests shows that the flowers have the ability scavenge free radicals which is stronger than that of the root but weaker than that of the seed coat (Sahu and Saxena, 2013; Bamniya and Verma, 2012; Mishra et al., 2011). Compared to other Fabaceae plants, Pithecellobium dulce flowers produce nectar that is hexose-dominant yet rich in sucrose, with key amino acids like proline and glutamic acid that nourish pollinators, and the resulting honey carries a distinct pH 3.9, about 18% moisture, and strong antioxidant activity and minerals such as calcium and potassium (Raju and Rao, 2006; Moniruzzaman et al., 2013). The chemical constituents present in the flowers of Pithecellobium dulce are given in Figure 4.

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Gum (Exudate)

Arabinose and galactose make up the majority of the arabinogalactan-rich heteropolysaccharide found in the trunk gum of Pithecellobium dulce, with minor levels of glucose and rhamnose. Strong hydrogen bonding potential is highlighted by FTIR analysis, which also validates its safety for usage in food and medicine due to the absence of hazardous proteins. This natural gum stands out as a dependable, plant-based substitute for conventional gums due to its shear-thinning flow behaviour and heat durability up to 220ºC, particularly when encasing sensitive substances like rosemary oil (Chaudhari and Annapure, 2020; Sharma and Mehta, 2013). The trunk contains cellulose-rich fibres with low lignin, giving them high tensile strength and durability. Its heartwood is enriched with natural tannins and flavonoids, offers more resistance to fungal decay, making it well-suited for light construction and other long-lasting applications (Manimaran et al., 2020; Rutiaga et al., 1998; Magdum et al., 2011).

PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF PITHECELLOBIUM DULCE

Pithecellobium dulce has a good therapeutic value in traditional medicine for treating ulcers, earaches, toothaches, intestinal disorders and leprosy. Pharmacological studies confirm its efficacy, possessing antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects due to the presence of flavonoids, saponins and tannins. The plant also neutralizes animal toxins, including snake venom, and functions as an ecofriendly agent against disease (Megala and Geetha, 2010; Pithayanukul et al., 2005).

Adulticidal activity

Pithecellobium dulce crude leaf and seed extracts were examined in a variety of solvents, and the results indicated that methanol leaf extract was more effective than seed extract (LC₅₀=309.24 ppm; LC₉₀=570.80 ppm) at 234.97 ppm and 464.86 ppm, respectively. Strong adulticidal potential against the filariasis vector was confirmed by the fact that no controls died (Govindarajan et al., 2012). Green-synthesized titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles from Pithecellobium dulce leaves exhibit strong adulticidal activity against Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. Their toxicity arises from exoskeletal damage and cellular disruption via oxidative stress, underscoring the potential of plant-mediated TiO₂ nanomaterials as eco-friendly alternatives for sustainable vector control (Murugan et al., 2012). It has efficacy against Anopheles stephensi, combining strong repellent with adulticidal effects and offers protection for more than 180 min at 5.0 mg/cm² (Rajeswary and Govindarajan, 2016). These crude extracts have exhibited remarkable adulticidal effect against the malaria vector Anopheles stephensi, with bioactive components most likely interfering with the neurological and physiological processes of the mosquito (Velayutham et al., 2013). Pithecellobium dulce seeds besides controlling mosquitoes produce Kunitz-type protease inhibitors that interfere with adult pest insects' digestive systems. These inhibitors hamper the absorption of nutrients by attacking the intestinal trypsin and chymotrypsin enzymes, which ultimately leads to malnutrition and death (Sampaio et al., 2009).

Anti-diabetic activity

Pithecellobium dulce fruit peel and leaf extracts have a potent inhibitory effect towards α-amylase and α-glucosidase, slowing down carbohydrate digestion and glucose uptake. It can prevent postprandial hyperglycaemia, thereby emphasizing its phytochemical constituents as a novel, safer, and purified antidiabetic agent over their synthetic counterpart (Pradeepa et al., 2013; Shankar and Kumar, 2010; Pithayanukul et al., 2005). In streptozotocin-induced diabetic models, Pithecellobium dulce fruit extracts significantly decreased blood sugar and HbA1c levels. Histopathology studies showed a prominent increase in pancreatic β cells, pointing out their potential therapeutic use in curing pancreatic dysregulation and complications from diabetes (Muthumani et al., 2010). A saponin-rich fraction from Pithecellobium dulce seeds demonstrated a potent anti-hyperglycaemic effect, having therapeutic relevance for diabetes treatment. It shown an amelioration effect in blocking gastrointestinal glucose, followed by an increase in glucose tolerance during oral glucose tolerance tests (Palanichamy et al., 2012). Quercetin, along with stigmasterol, from Pithecellobium dulce fruit peel, effectively prevents non-enzymatic haemoglobin glycation. By reducing HbA1c values, it promotes a stronger impact towards long-term glycaemic indecisiveness, thereby asserting its therapeutic relevance for diabetes treatment (Praylin and Lazarus, 2016; Meera et al., 2010; Verma et al., 2012). Its extracts can also boost the hepatic antioxidant mechanisms by increasing the activity of enzymes such as Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) and catalase, while at the same time relieving the condition of high LDL and VLDL levels associated with high HDL due to diabetes mellitus (Karthikeyan and Deepa, 2011; Palanichamy et al., 2012; Sundararajan and Koduru, 2014).

Hepatoprotective activity

The aqueous extract of Pithecellobium dulce fruits protected mice from CCl₄-mediated hepatic damage, preventing necrosis and reducing ALT, AST, and lipid levels (Manna et al., 2011). Ethanolic extracts from Pithecellobium dulce leaves protected rats from paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity by reducing serum bilirubin levels, hence reducing toxicity, while also elevating antioxidants like glutathione (Pradeepa et al., 2013). In drug-induced hepatotoxicity studies, Pithecellobium dulce extracts stimulated antioxidant enzymes in the liver (SOD, CAT, GPx) that decreased lipid peroxidation, reducing oxidative stress in drug-induced hepatotoxicity (Jayakumar et al., 2014). Ripe fruit extracts from Pithecellobium dulce protected the liver from alcohol-induced damage, maintaining normal levels of enzymes, while also maintaining normal tissue (Raju and Jagadeeshwar, 2014). In addition to lowering liver enzymes, Pithecellobium dulce extracts also maintained normal serum lipid profiles, alleviating disturbances in cholesterol and triglyceride levels resulting from chemically-induced hepatotoxicity (Mule et al., 2013). The aqueous fruit extracts from Pithecellobium dulce also demonstrated strong hepatoprotection similar to that of Silymarin, countering lipid peroxidation, thereby maintaining normal levels of antioxidants in the liver (Roselin and Parameshwari, 2025). Pithecellobium dulce extracts also reduce heavy metal-induced hepatotoxicity, like cadmium, by chelating heavy metals, hence reducing their adverse effects on antioxidants within the cells of the liver (Sinha et al., 2010; Bhattacharjee and Sil, 2007; Yadav et al., 2012).

Anti venom and protease inhibitor activity

Aqueous and methanol extracts of Pithecellobium dulce bark and leaves have been found to possess potent antivenom action experimentally. These were successful in neutralizing the toxicity of cobra and viper venoms, thereby lessening lethality and muscle damage (Shanmugavel and Vasanthkumar, 2016; Thwin and Gopalakrishnakone, 2010; Pithayanukul et al., 2005). A Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitor, named Pithecellobium dulce trypsin inhibitor (PDTI), of high stability has been obtained from Pithecellobium dulce seeds. However, this protein resisted inactivation by heating and pH changes, making it a very promising compound in preparing antivenom mixtures (Delgado-Vargas and Paredes-Lopez, 1997; Bhattacharyya and Babu, 2007; Sampaio et al., 2014). The protein inhibitors of Pithecellobium dulce were found to possess efficacy in inhibiting papain, chymotrypsin, and other proteases. The reason is that Pithecellobium dulce protein inhibitors possess multifaceted effects, advancing their utility in inhibiting various components of venoms, depending on proteolysis (Rawdkuen et al., 2012).

Antifungal Activity

Aqueous and powdered extracts from Pithecellobium dulce seeds and leaves inhibited the growth of Rhizopus stolonifer and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, major post-harvest pathogens of horticultural crops (Barrera-Necha et al., 2003). It's methanolic leaf extracts exhibited profound fungicidal effect against Fusarium oxysporum and Pestalotiopsis sp., which was reflected in inhibition zones comparable to that of common synthetic fungicides (Ali et al., 2018). Alcoholic and alkaloidal extracts from the leaves of Pithecellobium dulce exhibited strong antifungal effects against Candida albicans, a common human pathogen, by disrupting the integrity of fungal cell membrane (Shanmugakumar et al., 2006). Citrus fruit extracts of Pithecellobium dulce are effective to inhibit Penicillium digitatum, which delays sporulation besides reducing storage decay (Bautista-Baños et al., 2003). Due to spore disruption, silver nanoparticles prepared from leaf extract of Pithecellobium dulce manifested enhanced antifungal efficacy against Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus (Dutta et al., 2020). Triterpene saponins and phenolic chemicals, which impair the permeability of fungal plasma membrane and induce cell death, are the prime contributors for antifungal action of Pithecellobium dulce preparations (Murugan and Saranraj, 2011). Coating strawberries with extracts of Pithecellobium dulce strikingly reduced fungal deterioration and maintained its quality attributes like firmness and colour during cold storage (Schwieterman et al., 2008).

Antihyperlipidemic Activity

The leaves of Pithecellobium dulce have shown a remarkable decrease in the levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL cholesterol in the serum of high-fat diet-induced obese rats, hence making it a potent hypolipidemic agent (Sundarrajan and Rajeswari, 2018). The methanolic fruit extract prevents the action of HMG-CoA reductase, the rate-controlling step of cholesterol synthesis, hence reducing endogenous cholesterol (Sahoo et al., 2019). Seed-derived saponins stimulate the secretion of bile acids and sterols, hence reducing systemic lipids (Zhang et al., 2022). The studied extract demonstrated its potential in the reduction of lipids in Triton WR-1339-induced hyperlipidemia and was comparable to the existing medication atorvastatin. The potential of the former as an herbal hypolipidemic agent was demonstrated by the latter (Katekhaye and Nagmoti, 2017). When the histopathological analyses of the treated group’s liver tissue are considered for comparison with the untreated control group, the result clearly indicates the diminished accumulation of lipids in the former, hence improving the potential of the substance in becoming a better hypolipidemic agent by preventing the development of steatosis in the diet (Preethi et al., 2020). This substance significantly raised the levels of HDL-C, hence making it a better agent in the regulation of the lipid profile of the organism (Kumar et al., 2018). The peel extract contains Bioactive fibres that inhibit the absorption of lipids in the intestines by binding them, thus lowering their absorption into the bloodstream (Govindappa et al., 2017). Through improved insulin sensitivity and normalization of serum lipid levels, the administration of the seed extract successfully alleviates dyslipidemia in STZ-induced diabetic rats (Nagmoti et al., 2015).

CONCLUSION

Pithecellobium dulce has emerged as a remarkably versatile medicinal plant, thanks to its rich mix of bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins, and saponins. Research so far highlights its wide-ranging therapeutic potential from strong antioxidant, antidiabetic, and liver-protective effects to unique abilities like neutralizing venom, fighting fungal infections, and even serving as an eco-friendly tool for vector control. Pre-clinical trials have helped to elucidate its mechanism of action, its capacity to inhibit major enzymes involved in its action such as α-amylase, and its capacity to modulate reactive oxygen stress pathways. Although these positive leads are available, their translation into a real-world setting is still not feasible. The major hurdles that still exist are the lack of standardized extraction methods and a comprehensive toxicity profile. Going forward, it is important that research work identify major active constituents of the herb and elucidate its exact molecular targets, and design proper clinical trials so that P. dulce can truly be tapped as a scientific source of innovative phyto and nutraceuticals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, SNS College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, for providing the necessary facilities to carry out this review.

ACKREVIATIONS

QE

Quercetin equivalents

GAE

Gallic acid equivalents

DPPH

2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (radical-scavenging assay)

IC₅₀

Concentration required to achieve 50% inhibition

UPLC-ESI-MS/MS

Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Electrospray Ionization-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

GC-MS

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

HPLC

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

SCFAs

Short-Chain Fatty Acids

HPLC-DAD

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Diode-Array Detection

FTIR

Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

AgNPs

Silver nanoparticles

ZnO

Zinc oxide

CuO

Copper oxide

LC₅₀

Lethal concentration for 50% of the population

LC₉₀

Lethal concentration for 90% of the population

TiO₂

Titanium dioxide

HbA1c

Glycated hemoglobin

SOD

Superoxide dismutase

LDL

Low-Density Lipoprotein

VLDL

Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein

HDL

High-Density Lipoprotein

CCl₄

Carbon tetrachloride

ALT

Alanine aminotransferase

AST

Aspartate aminotransferase

CAT

Catalase

GPx

Glutathione peroxidase

PDTI

Pithecellobium dulce trypsin inhibitor

HMG-CoA

3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A

STZ

Streptozotocin.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

FUNDING

This review received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

SUMMARY

Pithecellobium dulce, commonly known as Jungle Jalebi or Kodukkapuli, is a medicinal tree native to Tropical America and widely cultivated in India. Its various parts (leaves, bark, seeds, aril, fruits) are rich in bioactive phytoconstituents including flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and phenolic acids. The plant exhibits significant pharmacological activities including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, and antimicrobial effects. Notably, it possesses anti-venom properties and eco-friendly larvicidal capabilities. While current research validates its traditional uses, future studies must focus on standardized extraction, toxicity profiling, and clinical trials to develop therapeutic applications.