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Article

GC-MS Phytochemical Profiling of Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila: Mechanistic Insights into Khalitya (Non-Specific Hairfall) Management

1★, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 3★ Corresponding author

  1. 1Department of Rejuvenative and Reproductive Medicine in Ayurveda, Shri BM Kankanawadi Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, A Constituent Unit of KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, INDIA.
  2. 2Department of Ayurveda Pharmacology, Shri BM Kankanawadi Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, A Constituent Unit of KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, INDIA.
  3. 3Department of Internal Medicine in Ayurveda, Shri BM Kankanawadi Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, A Constituent Unit of KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, INDIA.

CORRESPONDENCE

Sanyogeeta Ajay Dixit

Department of Rejuvenative and Reproductive Medicine in Ayurveda, Shri BM Kankanawadi Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, A Constituent Unit of KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Shahapur, Belagavi-590003, Karnataka, INDIA.

drsanyogeetadixit@gmail.com

ORCID: 0009-0007-2873-6916

Received: 17-05-2026; Revised: 09-06-2026; Accepted: 24-08-2026.

Volume 19, Issue 1 · pp. 202–214 · 2026 · DOI: 10.5530/pres.20270141

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ABSTRACT

Background: Non-Specific Hairfall (NSHF), classified as Khalitya in Ayurveda (NAMC FA-3, ICD-11 TM2), has a significant global burden. Kaidarya siddha Narikela Taila (KNT) is a formulation prepared with Narikela Taila (Cocos nucifera) and Kaidarya kashaya (decoction of Murraya koenigii), widely utilised in the management of Khalitya.

Aim and Objectives: To identify and analyse the phytochemical profile of Kaidarya siddha Narikela Taila (KNT) by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and correlate it to relevant pathways in NSHF pathophysiology.

Materials and Methods: KNT was prepared as per Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia Standards at GMP-certified KLE Ayurveda Pharmacy, Belagavi. GC-MS analysis was done using Shimadzu QP2020 (hexane extract, 1 µL injection, helium carrier 1.0 mL/min, oven: 70-280ºC) at Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI), Kerala, India, with compound identification against the NIST20 spectral library. The mapping of bioactivity was based on indexed scientific literature.

Results: 27 compounds were detected, with dominance of Dodecanoic acid (Lauric acid, 19.33%), Rac-glycerol-1,3-dilaurate (15.21%), 1-Hydroxy-3-(octanoyloxy)propan-2-yl decanoate (combined isomers, 21.71%), 1-Decanoyl-3-dodecanoylglycerol (combined isomers, 13.03%), and 2-(Decanoyloxy)propane-1,3-diyl dioctanoate (9.65%). 12 distinct pharmacological activities, directly relevant to hair fall, were identified, spanning from antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-androgenic, hair follicle protection and promotion and scalp penetration enhancement.

Conclusion: GC-MS analysis reveals potential mechanisms of KNT in Khalitya and suggests mechanistic hypotheses that need further experimental validation for therapeutic applications.

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FULL TEXT

INTRODUCTION

Hair loss, or Alopecia, is one of the concerning dermatological conditions, affecting up to 50% of men and 40-50% women by age 50 (Iyengar and Li, 2025). A particular subset called Non-Specific Hairfall (NSHF) that is characterised by diffuse hair loss has a multifactorial aetiology that includes nutritional deficiency, hormone imbalances, lifestyle factors and stress (Walter, 2022). At the root of NSHF lies a complex pathophysiology of androgenic dysregulation influenced by the activity of 5 α- reductase, oxidative stress at the level of follicles, disruption in the signalling axes of the anagen phase, imbalance in the scalp microbiome and long-standing perifollicular inflammation (Chen et al., 2025; Du et al., 2024; Ho et al., 2024; Owecka et al., 2024). It results in hair loss, which has a profound effect on the psyche, personality of an individual and their social interactions, leading to diminished quality of life (Aukerman and Jafferany, 2023). NSHF clinically presents as telogen effluvium in the majority of cases, followed by female pattern hair loss and alopecia areata, with underlying Androgenetic Alopecia (AGA) affecting 70% of men and 40% of women (Monil et al., 2023). A study into the prevalence in India showed that AGA was seen in 58% of males aged 30-50 years (Krupa et al., 2009), and 85.5% of females were diagnosed as cases of telogen effluvium (Karakoyun et al., 2025).

Currently available pharmacological interventions, particularly topical minoxidil and oral finasteride, have shown encouraging results in specific androgenetic presentations, but are riddled with undesirable adverse effects such as loss of libido, impotence, gynecomastia, regrowth dependency, hypotension, mood and cognitive disturbances, among others, limiting their use (Mysore, 2012; Suchonwanit et al., 2019).

Loss of hair is described in detail as Kesha patana under Khalitya (NAMC FA-3, ICD-11 TM2-SN71) in Ayurvedic literature. NAMC FA-3 describes Khalitya as a disorder characterised by the falling of scalp hair, due to the aggravated vata and pitta affecting the hair roots, followed by closure of the hair root. Oils processed with herbs are well known to maintain hair health and prevent hair fall. More than a thousand plant species with anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, adaptogenic, and immunomodulatory effects have been explored for potential benefits in hair health. One such herb is Murraya koenigii, which is a source of several bioactive compounds, possesses alkaloids, flavonoids, and volatile phenolics that exhibit immunomodulatory, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, anti-carcinogenic and anti-angiogenic properties. M. koenigii and its derivatives are proven to mitigate oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, neuroinflammation and cognitive dysfunction (Balakrishnan et al., 2020; Bhupatiraju et al., 2023; Mani et al., 2012). Medicated oils serve as lipid vehicles to deliver bioactive constituents. Controlled heating ensures enhancement of bioactive principles and improves bioavailability, which has been proven by Taila Paka Vidhi (Lahorkar et al., 2009; Singh and Chaudhary, 2011).

Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila (KNT) is a synergistic combination of the pharmacologically rich M. koenigii processed in Narikela Taila (Bangre et al., 2022), a saturated Medium-Chain Fatty Acid (MCFA)-rich lipid base with well-established anti-microbial and hair conditioning properties (Wang et al., 2015).

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) is the standard technique for accurate analysis and quantification of lipophilic semivolatile and volatile phytochemicals. It provides a scientific evaluation of individual compounds by precise spectral evaluation and retention time-based separation (Lytovchenko et al., 2009; Ferretti et al., 2025). Although used widely, and studies showing its therapeutic efficacy exist, there is no published literature on the GC MS characterisation of Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila. The present investigation aims to document the GC-MS phytochemical profile of KNT and systematically correlate the identified bioactive compounds with established molecular mechanisms in the pathophysiology of NSHF, thereby providing preliminary mechanistic data mapping the therapeutic delivery context of a topically applied medicated oil.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Preparation and Physicochemical Characterisation

The Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila was prepared at GMP-certified KLE Ayurveda Pharmacy, Belagavi, in accordance with the standards of the Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia of India. The ingredients and quantity used are listed in Table 1. The prepared KNT was subjected to standard physicochemical characterisation, including organoleptic evaluation, loss on drying, saponification value, iodine value, refractive index, specific gravity, acid value and rancidity as per API guidelines, with results listed in Table 2. The GC-MS analysis was carried out at the Centre for Analytical Instrumentation-Kerala (CAI-K), Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI) at Peechi, Thrissur, Kerala.

Table 1: Ingredients of Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila.
Sl. No.IngredientDrugLatin NamePart UsedProportion
1.Sneha Dravya (Oil base)Narikela TailaCocos nuciferaOil1 Part
2.Drava Dravya (Kashaya-Decoction)Kaidarya KashayaMurraya koenigiiLeaves4 Parts
Table 2: Organoleptic and Physico-Chemical Parameters of Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila Documented.
ParametersCharacters
DescriptionDull, Greenish Yellow Colour, Pleasant Odour, Oily to Touch
Loss on drying at 110ºC0.425%
Saponification value203.341
Iodine value55.613
Refractive index1.463
Specific gravity0.913
Acid value2.794 mg/KOH
RancidityNegative

GC-MS Analysis

Sample preparation

KNT was extracted with HPLC-grade hexane (1:10, v/v), centrifuged and the clear supernatant after filtration through a 0.45 μM PTFE membrane syringe filter was used for GCMS injection.

Instrumental parameters

Analysis of KNT was done on a Shimadzu GCMS-QP2020 NX system, attached with an AOC-20i autosampler, a highly coveted instrument for accurate qualitative and quantitative analysis owing to high sensitivity and analytical reliability of identified bioactive compounds. The GC capillary column was filled with a carrier gas, helium, at a flow rate of 1.00 mL/min (linear velocity-36.7 cm/sec). The injection temperature was 280ºC, split mode with a split ratio of 20:1 and injection volume 1.0 μL. The temperature in the column was programmed as follows: 70ºC initially (hold 0 min), increased at 8ºC/min to 260ºC, then 4ºC/min to 280ºC (hold 5 min). The temperature of the ion source and interface was 220ºC and 280ºC, respectively. The detection by the mass spectrometer was in full scan mode (m/z 50-500) with an event time of 0.30 sec.

Compound Identification

The compounds were identified based on (i) retention time, (ii) molecular ion peak and fragmentation pattern, and (iii) comparison with NIST20 reference library. The similarity index of ≥70% was accepted, in line with standard guidelines. The relative abundance of every compound was calculated as a percentage area under the curve with respect to the Total Ion Chromatogram (TIC) area.

The present study represents a single-run GC-MS profiling exercise intended to identify the phytochemical constituents of KNT. Replicate analysis and validated quantitative methods are recommended for confirmation of individual compound concentrations in future studies.

Bioactivity mapping

A targeted literature review was conducted across PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, utilising IUPAC or common name with terms including ‘hair’, ‘alopecia’, ‘antioxidant’, ‘anti-inflammatory’, ‘anti-microbial’, ‘hair follicle’, and ‘scalp’. Inclusion criteria: Indexed peer-reviewed publications reporting in vitro, in vivo, or clinical evidence of pharmacological activity of identified compound or a structural analogue. Exclusion criteria: non-indexed sources, review articles cited as sole primary evidence.

Ethical Statement

Ethical approval was not required for the present study as there was no involvement of human or animal subjects.

Statistical Analysis

No formal statistical analysis was performed. The study was conducted as a single-run GC-MS profiling exercise, and area percentages reported represent semi-quantitative relative abundance values from the total ion chromatogram, not absolute quantification. Future studies should include replicate injections (minimum n=3) to report mean±SD of relative peak areas, and validated quantitative GC-MS methods for individual compounds of pharmacological interest.

RESULTS

Physicochemical Parameters of KNT

KNT is a dull, greenish-yellow oil with a pleasant odour. The specific gravity and refractive index are within normal limits. The saponification value of 203.341 confirms the predominance of medium-chain fatty acid glycerides. An iodine value of 55.613 points to a low degree of unsaturation, whereas the low acid value of 2.794 mg KOH/g and a negative Kries test indicate lipid stability and absence of rancidity, which in turn validate the quality of KNT.

GC-MS Chromatographic Profile

A total of 27 chromatographic peaks were obtained across a Total Ion Chromatogram (TIC) with retention times spanning from 5.764 to 35.672 min (Figure 1). Every peak was successfully matched against the NIST 20 spectral library with similarity indices ranging from 72 to 97. The identified compounds, with peak areas, area percentages, molecular formula, compound class, and bioactivity, are shown in Table 3.

Figure 1: The Chromatogram of GC-MS Analysis of KNT. The oil was extracted with HPLC-grade hexane (1:10, v/v) and analysed on a Shimadzu GCMS-QP2020 NX system using a helium carrier gas (1.00 mL/min), with a split injection (20:1; 1.0 μL; 280ºC), and programmed column temperature ramp from 70ºC to 280ºC. Detection was in full scan mode (m/z 50-500). Compounds were identified by retention time, fragmentation pattern, and NIST20 library matching (similarity index ≥70%); relative abundance expressed as percentage TIC area.
Table 3: Details of Compounds detected in GCMS analysis with their Retention Time and their Activity.
Sl. No.Name of the compoundRetention timeAreaArea%HeightHeight%A/HStructureChemical FormulaCompound ClassActivity of Compound
1.1-Butanol, 3-methyl-, formate5.7642334480.50961560.922.43C6H12O2Formate esterAnti-bacterial (Sánchez-Hernández et al., 2023), Anti-fungal (Shehata et al., 2024)
2.4H-Pyran-4-one, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-6.5692661000.571224181.172.17C6H8O4HydroxypyranoneAntioxidant (Chen et al., 2021), Hair-promoting activity (Jang et al., 2022)
3.Octanoic acid (Caprylic acid)6.95513932552.973570553.423.90C8H16O2Carboxylic acid (MCFA)Antifungal (Aso et al., 2021), Antibacterial (Hsu et al., 2026; Lin et al., 2023), Anti-inflammatory(Tang et al., 2025), Neuroprotective (Altinoz et al., 2020)
4.4-Vinylphenol7.8304981461.061776011.702.80C8H8OVinyl phenolAnti-angiogenic (Yue et al., 2015)
5.2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol9.3775926731.262802992.692.11C9H10O2MethoxyphenolAnti-inflammatory (Asami et al., 2023), Anti-proliferative (Jeong and Jeong, 2010), Anti-oxidant (Shin et al., 2019), Anti-microbial (Pintado et al., 2024)
6.Ethyl 2-(5-methyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl)propan-2-yl carbonate9.4831041740.22542390.521.92C13H22O4Cyclic ether esterUnreported bioactivity
7.n-Decanoic acid (Capric acid)10.20610413342.223264113.133.19C10H20O2Medium-chain saturated fatty acid (MCFA)Anti-microbial (anti-bacterial(W. C. Huang et al., 2014), anti-fungal(Bhattacharyya et al., 2020), Anti-inflammatory(Huang et al., 2014), Anti-oxidant(Mett and Müller, 2021), Neuroprotective(Sanguanphun et al., 2022), Anti-cancer(Altinoz et al., 2020)
8.Dodecanoic acid (Lauric acid)13.380906904019.33170646216.355.31C12H24O2Medium-chain saturated fatty acid (MCFA)Anti-microbial (Borrelli et al., 2021; M et al., 2024), Anti-inflammatory (Moore et al., 2020), Anti-cancer (M et al., 2024), Anti-hairfall (Z. Huang et al., 2025), Anti-tumorigenic (Roopashree et al., 2021), Anti-oxidant (M et al., 2024)
9.Dodecanoic acid, ethyl ester (Ethyl laurate)13.7381578780.34910650.871.73C14H28O2Medium-chain fatty acid ethyl esterAnti-microbial (Laqui-Estaña et al., 2024; Nigussie et al., 2021)
10.4-Hydroxy-.beta.-ionone14.3931044440.22490400.472.13C13H20O2Ionone derivativeParent β-ionone shows Anti-oxidant, Anti-inflammatory (Aloum et al., 2020), Anti cancer/Anti-proliferative (Aloum et al., 2020; Ansari and Emami, 2016)
11.3-Buten-2-one, 4-(4-hydroxy-2,2,6-trimethyl-7-oxabicyclo[4.1.0]hept-1-yl)15.1592317590.491001550.962.31C13H20O3Monoterpene epoxideAnti-microbial (Tabe et al., 2026)
12..delta.-Dodecalactone15.4303706260.791972951.891.88C12H22O2δ-LactoneAnti-fungal, Anti-bacterial (Yang et al., 2011)
13.1,1,4,7-Tetramethyldecahydro-1H-cyclopropa[e]azulene-4,7-diol15.7751141910.24579830.561.97C15H26O2Sesquiterpene diolAnti-inflammatory, anti-androgenic potential.
14.Tetradecanoic acid (Myristic acid)16.16320340644.336206335.953.28C14H28O2Long-chain fatty acidAnti-microbial (Juárez-Rodríguez et al., 2021)
15.endo-1,5,6,7-Tetramethylbicyclo[3.2.0]
hept-6-en-3-ol		16.4491936360.41850500.822.28C11H18OBicyclic monoterpenoidAnti-oxidant (Ait benlabchir et al., 2024), Anti-bacterial (Chebbac et al., 2023)
16.2H-Pyran-2-one, tetrahydro-6-nonyl- (delta-tetradecalactone)18.2702656130.571362681.311.95C14H26O2δ-LactoneAnti-microbial (Sato et al., 2024)
17.Dodecanoic acid, 1-(hydroxymethyl)-1,2-ethanediyl ester25.4703223020.69901620.863.57C27H52O5DiglycerideEmollient(Hosmer et al., 2009)
18.Decanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-3-[(1-oxooctyl)oxy]propyl ester25.6591084110.23552510.531.96C21H40O5Mixed medium-chain triglyceride (MCT)Emollient, Penetration enhancer(88-91(Haque and Talukder, 2018; Hosmer et al., 2009; Ibrahim and Li, 2009; Schafer et al., 2023)
19.Glyceryl dilaurate25.7243704340.791423101.362.60C27H52O5DiglycerideAnti-microbial (M et al., 2024), Anti-acne (W. C. Huang et al., 2014), Skin penetration enhancer (Roopashree et al., 2021), occlusive moisturiser (Moore et al., 2020)
20.1-Hydroxy-3-(octanoyloxy)propan-2-yl decanoate28.14738168128.137690167.374.96C21H40O5MonoglycerideBroad spectrum anti-microbial (Hyldgaard et al., 2012; Thormar et al., 2006; Yoon et al., 2018), Skin/Scalp penetration enhancer, Emollient (Thormar et al., 2006)
21.1-Hydroxy-3-(octanoyloxy)propan-2-yl decanoate (isomer)28.490637278313.58158465515.194.02C21H40O5Mixed monoglycerideAnti-bacterial (Hyldgaard et al., 2012; Yoon et al., 2018), Anti-fungal (Thormar et al., 2006), Penetration enhancer, occlusive moisturiser (Moore et al., 2020)
22.Squalene29.1283193340.681104741.062.89C30H50TriterpeneAnti-oxidant (Z. R. Huang et al., 2009), Anti-inflammatory (X. Du et al., 2023), Hair follicle protection (Cheng et al., 2024), Hepatoprotective and Cardioprotective (Soumyashri C H, 2026), Anti-cancer (Z. R. Huang et al., 2009)
23.1-Decanoyl-3-dodecanoylglycerol31.04011881472.533178663.053.74-C25H48O5DiglycerideEmollient (Soumyashri C H, 2026), Class activity of anti-microbial (M et al., 2024) and occlusive moisturiser (Roopashree et al., 2021)
24.1-Decanoyl-3-dodecanoylglycerol (isomer)31.451492782910.507959857.636.19-C25H48O5DiglycerideEmollient (Soumyashri C H, 2026), Class activity of anti-microbial (M et al., 2024) and occlusive moisturiser (Roopashree et al., 2021)
25.2-(Decanoyloxy)propane-1,3-diyl dioctanoate34.44845278449.657548487.236.00C29H54O6TriglycerideEmollient, occlusive moisturiser (Roopashree et al., 2021), penetration enhancer, Anti-microbial (W. C. Huang et al., 2014)
26.Rac-glycerol-1,3-dilaurate35.375713967415.21111654310.706.39-C27H52O5DiglycerideAnti-microbial (M et al., 2024)
27.Dodecanoic acid, 1,2,3-propanetriyl ester (Trilaurin)35.67211633872.482387232.294.87C39H74O6TriglycerideAnti-microbial (M et al., 2024),

DISCUSSION

The present study is a phytochemical profiling investigation. It characterises the compositional landscape of KNT and maps identified compounds to pharmacological mechanisms reported in indexed literature. The pharmacological activities described herein are literature derived attributes of individual compounds or structurally analogous molecules. They are not experimentally validated in the context of KNT as a formulation. The discussion provides a mechanistic rationale for future experimental investigation and is driven towards hypothesis- generation.

Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila is a medicated oleaginous formulation that has been prepared for the management of Khalitya in accordance with the Taila Paka Vidhi explained in Sharangadhara Samhita. It consists of Kaidarya Kashaya (decoction of M. koenigii) processed with Narikela Taila (coconut oil). Khalitya (hairfall) is a precipitation of vitiated pitta, with involvement of vata, kapha and rakta in the keshabhumi (scalp), making abhyanga especially relevant in its management.

A traditionally relevant drug, Kaidarya (Murraya koenigii) with its katu (pungent), tikta (bitter), kashaya (astringent) rasa, laghu (light), sheeta (cold) guna (property), sheeta (cold) virya (potency), katu (pungent) vipaka (biotransformation), along with keshya (beneficial for hair), rasayana (rejuvenating), vishahara (anti-toxic) and krimihara (anti-microbial) actions, supports the scalp environment and antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial activity of M. koenigii makes it ideal for utilisation in hairfall (Abeysinghe et al., 2021; Javagal et al., 2021). Narikela Taila is inherently soothing and nourishing. It helps to reduce dryness, provides lubrication and scalp comfort and also has demonstrated improvement in hair fibre properties and porosity (Kaushik et al., 2022). The processing of Kaidarya Kashaya in Narikela Taila potentiates the medicinal action, enhances bioavailability, and gives an effective ayurvedic preparation that acts on scalp balance and hairfall. In addition, this study aims to put forth an evidence-based mode of action of Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila in the management of Khalitya and related disorders.

The GC-MS Analysis of Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila yielded 27 compounds in total, listed in Table . The compositional groups identified showed a complex phytochemical profile with the presence of Medium-Chain Fatty Acids (MCFAs) and their esters, glyceride esters, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, lactones and pyranones. The diverse portfolio of the compounds and their reported pharmacological actions of anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, emollient, hair follicle protecting and hair growth promoting activities emphasises the pharmacological value of the sample. The bioactivity profile summary is listed in Table 4.

Table 4: Common Activity of the Compounds.
Sl. No.ActivityNumberName of the Compound
1.Anti-Oxidant74H-Pyran-4-one; 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-; 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol; n-Decanoic acid; Dodecanoic acid; 4-Hydroxy-.beta.-ionone; endo-1,5,6,7-Tetramethylbicyclo[3.2.0]hept-6-en-3-ol; Squalene
2.Anti-Cancer/Anti-proliferative4n-Decanoic acid, Dodecanoic acid, 4-Hydroxy-.beta.-ionone, Squalene
3.Anti-Inflammatory7Octanoic acid, 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol, n-Decanoic acid; Dodecanoic acid; 4-Hydroxy-.beta.-ionone; 1,1,4,7-Tetramethyldecahydro-1H-cyclopropa[e]azulene-4,7-diol; Squalene
4.Anti-Bacterial61-Butanol, 3-methyl-, formate; Octanoic acid; n-Decanoic acid; .delta.-Dodecalactone; endo-1,5,6,7-Tetramethylbicyclo[3.2.0]hept-6-en-3-ol; 1-Hydroxy-3-(octanoyloxy)propan-2-yl decanoate
5.Anti-Fungal51-Butanol, 3-methyl-, formate; Octanoic acid; n-Decanoic acid; .delta.-Dodecalactone;1-Hydroxy-3-(octanoyloxy)propan-2-yl decanoate
6.Anti-Microbial (broad-spectrum)132-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol; n-Decanoic acid; Dodecanoic acid; Dodecanoic acid, ethyl ester; 3-Buten-2-one, 4-(4-hydroxy-2,2,6-trimethyl-7-oxabicyclo[4.1.0]hept-1-yl); Tetradecanoic acid; Glyceryl dilaurate; 1-Hydroxy-3-(octanoyloxy)propan-2-yl decanoate; 1-Decanoyl-3-dodecanoylglycerol; 2-(Decanoyloxy)propane-1,3-diyl dioctanoate; Rac-glycerol-1,3-dilaurate; Dodecanoic acid, 1,2,3-propanetriyl ester
7.Hair-growth promoting14H-Pyran-4-one, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-
8.Occlusive moisturiser4Glyceryl dilaurate; 1-Hydroxy-3-(octanoyloxy)propan-2-yl decanoate; 1-Decanoyl-3-dodecanoylglycerol; 2-(Decanoyloxy)propane-1,3-diyl dioctanoate
9.Skin/Scalp Penetration Enhancer3Glyceryl dilaurate; 1-Hydroxy-3-(octanoyloxy)propan-2-yl decanoate; 2-(Decanoyloxy)propane-1,3-diyl dioctanoate
10.Hair follicle protection1Squalene
11.Anti-hairfall1Dodecanoic acid
12.Anti-androgenic11,1,4,7-Tetramethyldecahydro-1H-cyclopropa(e)azulene-4,7-diol

Medium-chain fatty acids

The phytochemical profile of KNT shows a striking quantitative dominance of medium-chain fatty acids, namely dodecanoic acid (Lauric acid) at 19.33%, along with n-decanoic acid (Capric acid) at 2.22% and Octanoic acid (Caprylic acid) at 2.97%. This MCFA triad represents a pharmacologically relevant cluster whose constituents have been reported to address multiple axes of NSHF pathophysiology (Khoramnia et al., 2013). Lauric acid, a low molecular weight straight-chain fatty acid, has been reported to have high affinity for hair proteins, enabling deep penetration into the hair cortex and reducing protein loss from the shaft (Rele and Mohile, 2003).

Lauric acid has been reported to modulate the hair follicle in vitro, with evidence of anagen prolongation and catagen suppression (Gu et al., 2022). It’s presence in KNT suggests a potential contribution to follicular cycle regulation. It also has been reported to inhibit the growth of Malassezia furfur, which is implicated in seborrheic dermatitis-associated hairfall. It has also demonstrated antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and gram-positive scalp pathogens in experimental models, with proposed mechanisms including phospholipid bilayer disruption and inhibition of bacterial signal transduction, suggesting potential relevance to folliculitis and perifollicular inflammation (Douglas et al., 2025; Qingyan et al., 2024; Rouse et al., 2005).

n-Decanoic acid (Capric acid) augments the anti-microbial activity of lauric acid by its anti-bacterial and anti-fungal activity (Akula et al., 2021). Capric acid has been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory activity via negative modulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. This mechanism, if operative in the scalp microenvironment, may help limit hair follicle damage driven by inflammation and pyroptosis (Liu et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022). It has been reported as a mitochondrial antioxidant that may mitigate ROS production; this neuroprotective activity suggests a possible role in supporting follicular cycle regulation, warranting experimental confirmation in a follicular model (Aanaimuthu et al., 2025).

Octanoic acid (Caprylic acid) has demonstrated antifungal, (Akula et al., 2021) anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective activities in experimental models. It has been reported to suppress nitric oxide production and may contribute to maintaining perifollicular innervation, (Aanaimuthu et al., 2025; Nukaga et al., 2024), though this requires validation in a scalp-specific context.

Tetradecanoic acid (Myristic acid) has been reported to exhibit anti-biofilm activity against Staphylococcus species, with suggested relevance to follicular microenvironments (Kim et al., 2022; Yuyama et al., 2020).

Glyceride Esters

Glyceride esters (mono-, di- and triglycerides of MCFAs) constitute the dominant fraction by combined area percentage (54.39%) and are the phytochemicals with the quantitatively largest component class in KNT. It includes: Rac-glycerol-1,3-dilaurate (15.21%), 2 positional isomers of 1-Hydroxy-3-(octanoyloxy)propan-2-yl decanoate (8.13% and 13.58% respectively), 1-Decanoyl-3-dodecanoylglycerol (2.53% and 10.50%), 2-(Decanoyloxy)propane-1,3-diyl dioctanoate (9.65%), Glyceryl dilaurate (0.79%) and Trilaurin (2.48%). These compounds are likely products of transesterification and partial glycerolysis during the Taila Paka process, and may contribute pharmacological activity beyond serving as simple lipid carriers (Ginsburg et al., 2024).

The predominant pharmacological actions exhibited are transfollicular penetration enhancement, occlusive moisturisation and anti-microbial activity. Structurally analogous glyceride esters have been reported to act as penetration enhancers by interpolating into the stratum corneum and increasing lipid bilayer fluidity, potentially facilitating deeper follicular drug delivery; direct evidence for KNT glycerides in this role warrants experimental confirmation. Structurally analogous glyceride esters have demonstrated scalp penetration-enhancing activity to the dermal papilla and bulge region in experimental models, suggesting a possible role in supporting follicular stem cell access to bioactive constituents. This scalp penetration-enhancing activity is vital for the expression of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-androgenic, and hair growth promotion activities of compounds at the level of the target tissue (Haque and Talukder, 2018; Hosmer et al., 2009; Ibrahim and Li, 2009; Schafer et al., 2023). This glyceride fraction potentiates the pharmacological actions of the entire formulation, which can be correlated to the ayurvedic postulate that sukshma, snigdha guna of taila enables deep tissue penetration.

These glyceride esters are proposed to provide occlusive moisturisation by creating a semi-occlusive lipid film, which reduces the transepidermal water loss from the scalp surface (Kundu et al., 2026). They may help address scalp barrier dysfunction associated with xerosis and a proinflammatory scalp microenvironment, both of which have been implicated in NSHF (Mughni et al., 2025). In addition, glyceryl dilaurate, which closely resembles mono and diglycerides derived from lauric acid, exhibits anti-acne activity, which has relevance in comedo-associated hair follicle obstruction. This glyceride class shows broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. Rac-glycerol-1,3-dilaurate and related dilaurate diglycerides may amplify total antimicrobial potency and are proposed to act as sustained-release reservoirs for Lauric acid, potentially maintaining active concentrations at the follicular level after application; this pharmacokinetic role warrants direct experimental investigation (Yoon et al., 2018). This can be understood as the sustained effect of regular taila application, which promotes scalp health.

2 phenolic compounds- 4-Vinylphenol and 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol, derived from the thermal decarboxylation of p-coumaric acid and ferulic acid, respectively, represent the phytochemical signature of M. koenigii in the formulation. 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol has been reported to exhibit antioxidant activity through free radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory activity via COX-2 inhibition and NF-κB pathway suppression (Jeong et al., 2011), antiproliferative activity, and broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity in experimental models. The presence of antioxidant phenolics in KNT suggests a potential capacity to counteract accumulated ROS at the follicular level. Oxidative stress has been associated with premature catagen entry and telogen effluvium, making this a pharmacologically relevant hypothesis warranting in vitro validation in the spectrum of NSHF (Aroor et al., 2023; Parithy et al., 2021). 4-Vinylphenol has been reported to exhibit anti-angiogenic activity via PI3K/AKT targeting (Yue et al., 2015). This may be of relevance in inflammatory NSHF presentations characterised by pathological angiogenesis, though its effect in the scalp microenvironment remains to be directly investigated.

Squalene, a physiological precursor to sterol biosynthesis, is a linear triterpene that has immense therapeutic importance in the spectrum of trichology. As a constituent of human sebum, squalene has been reported to support dermal papilla cell viability under oxidative stress conditions, suggesting a potential protective role at the hair follicle level (Lin et al., 2013). Squalene is reported as one of the most potent singlet oxygen quenchers (Kohno et al., 1995; Yao et al., 2024) and may help prevent lipid peroxidation. This suggests a potential role in counteracting the oxidative follicular damage implicated in NSHF (Du et al., 2023; Özdemir et al., 2026).

1,1,4,7-Tetramethyldecahydro-1H-cyclopropa(e)azulene-4,7-diol is a sesquiterpene that has been associated with a dual profile of anti-inflammatory and anti-androgenic activity, in structurally related analogues, raising the hypothesis of DHT-pathway modulation. By this dual nature, it can address both androgenic and inflammatory axes of NSHF simultaneously (Brooks et al., 1986; Ma et al., 2023), making an in vitro 5α-reductase inhibitory assay indispensable to understand its contribution to androgenic modulation.

4-Hydroxy-β-ionone, a lipid-soluble, degraded carotene from the leaf of M. koenigii, has been reported to show antioxidant activity, it may help protect sebaceous scalp lipids from peroxidative degradation, potentially attenuating the downstream inflammatory cascade, a hypothesis that requires experimental confirmation (Jourdain et al., 2023; Kang et al., 2013). The antiproliferative activity (Luetragoon et al., 2020) of the β-scaffold may contribute to its anti-inflammatory activity.

endo-1,5,6,7-Tetramethylbicyclo[3.2.0]hept-6-en-3-ol, a rigid, bicyclic monterpenoid alcohol from M. koenigii, is a metabolically stable compound with antioxidant and antibacterial activities.

DDMP (4H-Pyran-4-one, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-) is a unique compound with significant documented evidence in hair growth-promoting activity. It is produced during the Maillard reaction in the lipid-aqueous interface. DDMP has been reported to act on the follicular regenerative matrix. It is proposed to support the proliferation of hair follicle keratinocytes and follicle elongation (Hwang et al., 2013; Jang et al., 2022).

It has been reported to promote hair follicle keratinocyte proliferation and support follicle elongation, potentially by protecting actively proliferating cells from ROS-mediated DNA damage (Hwang et al., 2013; Jang et al., 2022).

The triad of DDMP, Lauric acid, and Squalene may be responsible for anagen induction, maintenance, and mitogenic activity of hair follicles, reflecting the pharmacological importance of KNT in the mitigation of NSHF.

δ-Dodecalactone and δ-Tetradecalactone are macrolactones with a distinctive anti-microbial mechanism (Sato et al., 2024). Triggered by the pH, they release the hydroxy fatty acid inside the microbial cell and disrupt the microorganism. The relatively alkaline pH of the follicular canal has been proposed to facilitate site-specific antimicrobial activity of pH-triggered lactones, though direct evidence in the follicular context is limited (Adav et al., 2025; Kaden et al., 2020).

Pharmacology and NSHF pathophysiology

The phytochemical profile of KNT demonstrates a confluence of multi-target mechanisms that can address the pathophysiology of NSHF.

Androgenic axis

The sesquiterpene diol is proposed to modulate the androgenic axis, its suggested 5α-reductase inhibitory activity, if confirmed, may contribute to limiting DHT-mediated follicular miniaturisation.

Oxidative stress axis

7 compounds have been reported to contribute antioxidant activity through mechanisms including direct scavenging, singlet oxygen quenching, and mitochondrial ROS reduction, suggesting a multi-point antioxidant profile for KNT at the follicular level.

Inflammatory axis

7 compounds-Octanoic acid, 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol, n-Decanoic acid, Dodecanoic acid, 4-Hydroxy-β.-ionone; 1,1,4,7-Tetramethyldecahydro-1H-cyclopropa[e]azulene-4,7-diol; Squalene has been individually reported to address perifollicular inflammation through mechanisms including pro-inflammatory cytokine suppression (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition, and reduction of follicle-damaging inflammatory mediators, collectively suggesting a multi-target anti-inflammatory hypothesis for KNT in hair and scalp health.

Scalp microbiome axis

15 compounds have demonstrated antimicrobial activity in experimental models across bacterial and fungal origins implicated in scalp barrier dysbiosis.

Hair follicle cycle axis

Lauric acid (reported anagen prolongation), Squalene (reported dermal papilla protection), and DDMP (reported keratinocyte mitogenesis) form a proposed triad addressing specific phases of the hair follicle cycle-a hypothesis warranting validation in a follicular cycle model.

Transdermal delivery axis

The glyceride ester fraction is proposed to contribute to follicular bioavailability of active compounds through penetration enhancement, and may support scalp health through occlusive moisturisation, both roles reported for structurally analogous compounds in the literature.

To sum up, the compounds analysed through GC-MS analysis of KNT provide a pharmacologically grounded hypothesis framework for the potential utility of KNT across the above axes in the management of Khalitya, offering a mechanistic rationale consistent with the classical Keshya, Twachya, and Balya properties ascribed to KNT, pending experimental and clinical validation.

LIMITATIONS

GC-MS analysis was performed as a single-run exercise without replicate injections. Future studies should report mean ± SD of peak areas. All pharmacological inferences are based on literature-reported activities of isolated compounds and not on in vitro, in vivo, or clinical validation of KNT as a whole formulation. These limitations define the scope of the present work as an exploratory, hypothesis-generating investigation.

CONCLUSION

The GC-MS profiling of Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila identified 27 bioactive compounds spanning medium-chain fatty acids, glyceride esters, phenolics, terpenoids, and lactones. The pharmacological activities reported in literature for these compounds collectively address antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-androgenic, penetration-enhancing, and hair-growth-promoting mechanisms that are relevant to one or more pathophysiological axes of Khalitya/NSHF. These findings constitute a mechanistic hypothesis framework for the therapeutic utility of KNT and support its further investigation through in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies. The study positions KNT as a promising candidate for evidence-based validation in trichology, bridging classical Ayurvedic formulation science with contemporary molecular pharmacology.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors express their sincere gratitude to CRF and KLE Ayurveda Pharmacy, Belagavi, Karnataka, for their support in the authentication, physicochemical analysis and preparation of Kaidarya siddha Narikela Taila in accordance with the standards of Ayurveda Pharmacopoeia of India. The authors also express their gratitude to the Centre for Analytical Instrumentation, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Thrissur District, Kerala, for conducting the GC-MS analysis of the formulation.

ABBREVIATIONS

ICD-11
International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision
AGA
Androgenetic Alopecia
PTFE
Polytetrafluoroethylene
TIC
Total Ion Chromatogram
KFRI
Kerala Forest Research Institute
CAI-K
Centre for Analytical Instrumentation-Kerala
API
Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India
DDMP
4H-Pyran-4-one, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-
MCT
Medium-chain triglyceride
DHT
Dihydrotestosterone
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
CRF
Central Research Facility.
NAMC
National Ayurveda Morbidity Code
GC-MS
Gas Chromatography - Mass Spectrometry
GMP
Good Manufacturing Practice
KNT
Kaidarya siddha Narikela Taila, RT: Retention Time
A/H
Area/Height ratio
ROS
Reactive Oxygen Species
TNF-α
Tumour Necrosis Factor-alpha
IL-1β
Interleukin-1 beta
IL-6
Interleukin-6
NF-κB
Nuclear Factor kappa B
COX-2
Cyclooxygenase-2
VEGF
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor
NIST
National Institute of Standards and Technology.
HPLC
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
NSHF
Non Specific hair fall
MCFA
Medium-Chain Fatty Acid.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

AUTHORS CONTRIBUTION

Sanyogeeta Ajay Dixit: Research concept and design, Collection and/or assembly of data, Data analysis and interpretation, Writing the article, Critical revision of the article, Final approval of the article. Pankaj Sharma: Research concept and design, Collection and/or assembly of data, Data analysis and interpretation, Writing the article, Critical revision of the article, Final approval of the article. Pradnya Prakash Hemke: Collection and/or assembly of data, Data analysis and interpretation, Critical revision of the article. Kashavva Veerabasayya Hiremath: Critical revision of the article, Final approval of the article. Susmita Devgonda Shedbale: Data analysis and interpretation, Writing the article. Namrata Bhagaje: Critical revision of the article, Final approval of the article. Monika Yadav: Data analysis and interpretation, Writing the article, Critical revision of the article.

SUMMARY

Hair loss, especially non-specific hair fall, is a multifactorial condition driven by hormonal imbalance, oxidative stress, inflammation, microbiome disruption, and lifestyle factors, with major psychosocial impact. This study evaluates Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila, an Ayurvedic medicated oil prepared with Murraya koenigii in coconut oil, for its potential in Khalitya management. GC-MS analysis identified 27 bioactive compounds, including medium-chain fatty acids, glyceride esters, phenolics, terpenoids, and lactones, many with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and hair-growth-promoting properties. The findings suggest that KNT may support scalp health, follicular delivery, and hair preservation through multiple mechanistic pathways, warranting further preclinical and clinical validation.

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Dixit, S. A., Sharma, P., Hemke, P. P., Hiremath, K. V., Shedbale, S. D., Bhagaje, N., & Yadav, M. (2026). GC-MS Phytochemical Profiling of Kaidarya Siddha Narikela Taila: Mechanistic Insights into Khalitya (Non-Specific Hairfall) Management. Pharmacognosy Research, 19(1), 202–214. https://doi.org/10.5530/pres.20270141