jrnls.org logo
Submit

BROWSE ALL JOURNALS

SEE ALL 19 JOURNALS
Life Science Research CommunicationsNOW IN
Review

Overview of Pharmacotherapy for COVID-19 Management

Ahmed Hosny Hassan1★★ Corresponding author

  1. 1Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura National University, EGYPT.

CORRESPONDENCE

Ahmed Hosny Hassan

Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura National University, EGYPT. ahmedhosnyhassan@mans.edu.eg

ahmedony26@gmail.com

Received: 17-11-2025; Revised: 06-01-2026; Accepted: 25-03-2026.

Volume 1, Issue 3 · pp. 86–98 · PUBLISHED Sep-Dec 2026 · DOI: 10.5530/lsrc.1.3.17

View on LSRC original site ↗

ABSTRACT

Introduction the current epidemic of COVID-19 requires a lot of efforts to be controlled involving pharmacotherapy and clinical pharmacology studies. Aim: to introduce a brief review of drugs under investigation for COVID-19. Methodology Our project is a systematic review of many medications being studied for their effectiveness and safety in COVID-19 management. Results Antiviral drugs (osletmivir, ramdisvir), corticosteroids (dexamethasone), immunomodulators (anakinera, toculizumab), antithrombotic (antiplatletes, anticoagulants) are still under investigation although preliminary results are promising. Conclusion Yet, few medications have been approved by FDA for management of COVID-19 but drugs have been used in clinical trials under FDA emergency use authorization. Ongoing clinical trials are essential to establish their long-term safety and effectiveness. Key points: 1. Scientists are testing different medicines, such as antivirals, steroids, immune-boosting drugs, and blood thinners, to see if they can help treat COVID-19. 2. Some of these drugs show early promise, but only a few have official approval for use. 3. More research and clinical trials are needed to make sure these treatments are safe and work well in the long run.

KEYWORDS

0% READ

FULL TEXT

INTRODUCTION

Coronaviruses (CoVs) are a family of RNA viruses classified under the subfamily Orthocoronavirinae, within the Coronaviridae family and the order Nidovirales. This group includes alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-coronaviruses. Notably, beta-coronaviruses have been responsible for three major outbreaks in the past two decades: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV) in 2002, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV) in 2012, and the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2, first identified in late 2019 (Banerjee et al., 2019; The Lancet Oncology, 2020).

As of July 31, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) had received extensive global reporting on COVID-19 cases (Figure 1; World Health Organization, 2020). These data underscore the importance of robust clinical and pharmacological responses to curb the pandemic.

Figure 1: COVID-19 Situation in numbers 20/10/2020 (by WHO Region) (Al-Tawfiq et al., 2014).

Objectives

To introduce a brief review of medications under investigation for COVID-19 management showing their efficacy and safety with evidence by clinical trials

METHODOLOGY

Our study is a systematic review of many medications being studied for their effectiveness and safety in COVID-19 management. We used PubMed search tool using term "management of COVID-19 by pharmacotherapy" resulting in many clinical trials and few systematic review.

Literature Review

Nutritional interventions

Nutritional Supportive Therapies

Nutritional approaches have gained attention for their potential to modulate immune responses in patients with COVID-19. Vitamins and minerals such as vitamin C, D, and zinc may help reinforce the host defense mechanisms against viral infections. These agents play a supportive role in recovery and are commonly recommended as adjunctive therapy, especially in cases involving immune dysregulation (Figure 2; Zhang and Liu, 2020).

Figure 2: General supportive treatments of COVID-19 (Amici et al., 2006).

Coronavirus‐specific treatments

Coronavirus‐specific treatments are shown in Figures 3 and 4 shows a recommendation rating scheme.

Figure 3: Coronavirus‐specific treatments (Amici et al., 2006).
Figure 4: Recommendation Rating Scheme.

Chloroquine/Hydroxychloroquine

These antimalarial compounds initially showed promise due to their ability to interfere with viral entry via the ACE2 receptor. However, data from clinical trials have yielded inconsistent efficacy and raised concerns over cardiac safety, particularly QT interval prolongation, limiting their use to experimental settings (Savarino et al., 2003; Vincent et al., 2005; Fang et al., 2020; Borba et al., 2020; CredibleMeds, 2020; Rosa and Santos, 2020; Chorin et al., 2020).

Promazine

As an older antipsychotic, promazine has demonstrated potential antiviral activity by disrupting the viral entry process, but it has not progressed beyond preclinical evaluation (Zhang and Yap, 2004).

Antiviral treatments

Summary of antiviral agents is shown in Figures 5-7.

Figure 5: Antiviral drugs for COVID-19.
Figure 6: Characteristics of Potential Antiviral Agents Under Evaluation for COVID-19 (Food and Drug Administration, 2020).
Figure 7: Characteristics of Immune-Based Therapy Under Evaluation for Treatment of COVID-19 (Food and Drug Administration, 2020).

Lopinavir/ritonavir (Kaletra)

This protease inhibitor combination, used in HIV management, showed modest efficacy in early coronavirus outbreaks. Its use in COVID-19 has been discouraged outside clinical trials due to pharmacokinetic challenges and limited clinical improvement (Tsang and Zhong, 2003; Kim et al., 2016; Cao et al., 2020).

Remdesivir

A nucleotide analog with broad antiviral properties, remdesivir has demonstrated inhibition of coronavirus replication in animal and human studies. It is frequently administered to hospitalized patients requiring respiratory support, typically in a 5- to 10-day course depending on clinical status (Agostini et al., 2018; Sheahan et al., 2020; Beigel et al., 2020; Goldman et al., 2020).

Nelfinavir

Another HIV medication, nelfinavir has shown in vitro suppression of SARS-CoV replication and is being considered for further exploration against COVID-19 (Yamamoto et al., 2004).

Azithromycin

Known for its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects, azithromycin has been combined with hydroxychloroquine in early studies. However, this regimen has not shown consistent benefits and may increase cardiac risks (Gautret et al., 2020; Molina et al., 2020).

Niclosamide and Ivermectin

These antiparasitic agents have shown antiviral activity in vitro. Ivermectin, in particular, has demonstrated a rapid reduction in viral RNA levels, but clinical evidence remains limited (Wu et al., 2004; Caly et al., 2020).

Oseltamivir

Primarily used for influenza, oseltamivir has been included in some investigational combinations against COVID-19, although its individual efficacy remains unclear (Rosa and Santos, 2020).

Immune-Based Therapy Under Evaluation for Treatment of COVID-19

Convalescent Plasma and Immune Globulins

There is currently a lack of conclusive data either supporting or opposing the use of convalescent plasma or SARS-CoV-2-specific immune globulins in treating COVID-19 (Ahn et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020; Ye et al., 2020; Zeng et al., 2020).

Interleukin-1 Inhibitors

Medications like anakinra, which target IL-1, are being investigated for their potential in managing COVID-19-related inflammation. However, data remain insufficient to recommend their use outside of clinical trials (Shakoory et al., 2016; Aouba et al., 2020; Cavalli et al., 2020).

Interleukin-6 Inhibitors

Agents such as tocilizumab, sarilumab, and siltuximab target IL-6 pathways involved in cytokine release syndromes. Despite their theoretical benefits, current evidence is inadequate to suggest routine use in COVID-19 (Press Release, 2020; Sciascia et al., 2020).

Interferons (Alfa, Beta)

The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel advises against the use of interferons in COVID-19 management except within the context of formal clinical trials (Al-Tawfiq et al., 2014; Arabi et al., 2019).

Janus Kinase Inhibitors (e.g., Baricitinib)

JAK inhibitors, including baricitinib, are not currently recommended for general COVID-19 treatment and should only be administered under controlled clinical research (Richardson et al., 2020).

Antithrombotic Therapy in Patients with COVID-19

Chronic Anticoagulant and Antiplatelet Therapy

Patients already prescribed antithrombotic therapy for other conditions should continue their regimen upon COVID-19 diagnosis (AIII).

Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis and Screening

Non-hospitalized individuals with COVID-19 should not receive anticoagulation prophylaxis unless another indication exists (AIII). Hospitalized patients should receive standard VTE prophylaxis, but routine post-discharge prophylaxis is not recommended unless specific high-risk factors apply (BI).

Screening and Management

Routine screening for thrombotic events in asymptomatic COVID-19 patients is not supported by current evidence (BIII). However, if there is rapid clinical deterioration suggestive of thromboembolism, further evaluation and management are warranted (AIII).

Treatment

In cases of confirmed or highly suspected thromboembolism where imaging is not feasible, standard anticoagulant therapy should be initiated (AIII). Patients undergoing ECMO, CRRT, or catheter-based interventions should also receive antithrombotic therapy as per institutional protocols (AIII).

Selection of Anticoagulant or Antiplatelet Drugs for Patients with COVID-19

For hospitalized patients, low molecular weight or unfractionated heparin is preferred due to better control and fewer interactions (AIII). Outpatients on warfarin with limited INR access may transition to direct oral anticoagulants unless contraindicated (American Society of Hematology, 2020).

Other compounds

α‐Lipoic acid (ALA)

ALA, long used for liver and nerve-related disorders, exhibits strong antioxidant properties by enhancing intracellular glutathione and neutralizing oxidative stress. It may mitigate viral infectivity by counteracting oxidative damage and G6PD-related vulnerabilities to coronaviruses (Sachse and Willms, 1980; Tibullo et al., 2017; El-Senousey et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2008).

Dexamethasone

As a potent corticosteroid, dexamethasone has shown benefit in reducing inflammation and improving outcomes in patients with severe COVID-19. The RECOVERY trial demonstrated improved survival among ventilated patients or those needing supplemental oxygen (Horby et al., 2020). Dexamethasone is not advised in cases without oxygen support (AI) (Molina et al., 2020). Chronic corticosteroid users for underlying conditions should continue therapy, possibly with stress-dose adjustments (AIII) (Kaiser et al., 2020).

Empiric Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Therapy

In patients with COVID-19 and intense or vital illness, there are inadequate records to endorse empiric broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy in the absence of any other indication (BIII).

If antimicrobials are initiated, the Panel recommends that their use must be reassessed every day so that you can decrease the unfavorable effects of needless antimicrobial therapy (AIII).

Considerations for Certain Concomitant Medications in Patients with COVID-19

Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARBs)

Persons with COVID-19 who are taking NSAIDs for a comorbid condition should continue therapy as previously directed by their physician (AIII). The Panel recommends that there be no distinction in the use of antipyretic strategies (e.g., with acetaminophen or NSAIDs) among patients with or without COVID-19 (AIII; Patel and Verma, 2020; American College of Cardiology, 2020).

Ibuprofen

Ibuprofen, a Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug (NSAID), is an activator of ACE2 receptors, similar to ACE inhibitors or ARBs. Their utilization can result in an increased hazard of contracting COVID-19 (Fang et al., 2020). Since fatal lung failure triggered through SARS-CoV infections can be managed through blocking the renin-angiotensin pathway (Kuba et al., 2005), ibuprofen might not be harmful. However, there is no strong evidence suggesting a link between NSAID use and worsening symptoms due to SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Indomethacin

Amici et al., (2006) demonstrated that indomethacin, a widely used NSAID and a potential Cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitor, exhibits antiviral activity against SARS-CoV. Remarkable inhibition of SARS-CoV-infected cells by more than 99% at non-toxic concentrations was also observed. This suggests probable efficacy of indomethacin against SARS-CoV-2.

RESULTS

Nutritional intervention: Vitamins, minerals, and immunomodulators play an important role in enhancing the body’s immunity against several viruses, including SARS-CoV (Zhang and Liu, 2020). Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are potent inhibitors of SARS coronavirus infection but are not recommended for use outside clinical trials (Savarino et al., 2003).

Currently, many trials are testing the effect of azithromycin in conjunction with hydroxychloroquine on the course of disease in people with SARS-CoV-2, showing its efficacy (Gautret et al., 2020; Molina et al., 2020). However, the azithromycin and hydroxychloroquine combination is not recommended for use outside clinical trials due to potential interactions (e.g., prolonged QT-interval) (Borba et al., 2020; CredibleMeds, 2020; Rosa and Santos, 2020).

Although lopinavir/ritonavir showed potential during the early disease phase in conjunction with interferons, studies have since shown limited benefit in COVID-19 patients due to poor pharmacokinetics (Cao et al., 2020).

Remdesivir has shown efficacy in preclinical studies by reducing viral load and improving lung function. It is currently recommended for hospitalized patients requiring oxygen or mechanical support (Agostini et al., 2018; Sheahan et al., 2020; Beigel et al., 2020).

Nelfinavir has also demonstrated significant inhibitory effects on SARS-CoV replication and may be a candidate for further COVID-19 trials (Yamamoto et al., 2004). Oseltamivir, while effective against influenza, is being studied in combination with other drugs for potential use against SARS-CoV-2 (Rosa and Santos, 2020).

Niclosamide and ivermectin both show strong in vitro antiviral properties, with ivermectin reducing viral RNA by thousands-fold within 48 hr (Caly et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2004).

ALA acts as an antioxidant, potentially reducing oxidative stress and related complications during viral infection, including COVID-19 (Tibullo et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2008).

Dexamethasone has proven clinical benefit in patients requiring respiratory support by dampening systemic inflammation (Horby et al., 2020).

Use of broad-spectrum antibiotics is discouraged unless secondary infection is suspected. Convalescent plasma, IL-1/IL-6 inhibitors, interferons, and baricitinib remain under investigation and are not yet recommended for routine care (Ahn et al., 2020; Shakoory et al., 2016; Cavalli et al., 2020; Sciascia et al., 2020; Al-Tawfiq et al., 2014; Richardson et al., 2020).

Convalescent Plasma and Immune Globulins

There are insufficient data to recommend either for or against the use of COVID-19 convalescent plasma or SARS-CoV-2 immune globulins for the treatment of COVID-19 (Ahn et al., 2020; Ye et al., 2020; Zeng et al., 2020).

Antithrombotic Therapy

Antithrombotic interventions, including heparins and oral anticoagulants, are used only when clinically indicated. Choice of drug depends on the patient’s condition and setting, with LMWH and UFH preferred in hospitalized patients (American Society of Hematology, 2020).

Anakinra

There are insufficient data to recommend either for or against the use of interleukin-1 (IL-1) inhibitors, such as anakinra, for the treatment of COVID-19 (Aouba et al., 2020; Cavalli et al., 2020).

Tocilizumab

There are insufficient data to recommend either for or against the use of interleukin-6 (IL-6) inhibitors (tocilizumab) for the treatment of COVID-19 (Press Release, 2020; Sciascia et al., 2020).

Interferons

It is not recommended to use interferons for the treatment of COVID-19, except in the context of a clinical trial (Al-Tawfiq et al., 2014; Arabi et al., 2019).

Baricitinib

It is not recommended to use Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors (e.g., baricitinib) for the treatment of COVID-19, except in the context of a clinical trial (Richardson et al., 2020).

Antithrombotic Therapy

Patients with COVID-19 who experience an incident thromboembolic event or who are highly suspected to have thromboembolic disease at a time when imaging is not possible should be managed with therapeutic doses of anticoagulant therapy as per the standard of care for patients without COVID-19. Patients with COVID-19 who require extracorporeal membrane oxygenation or continuous renal replacement therapy or who have thrombosis of catheters or extracorporeal filters should be treated with antithrombotic therapy per institutional protocols. Low molecular weight heparin or unfractionated heparin may be preferred in hospitalized, critically ill patients because of their shorter half-lives, ability to be administered intravenously or subcutaneously, and fewer drug-drug interactions compared with oral anticoagulants. Outpatients receiving warfarin who are unable to get international normalized ratio monitoring during isolation may be candidates for direct oral anticoagulant therapy. Patients with mechanical heart valves, ventricular assist devices, valvular atrial fibrillation, or antiphospholipid antibody syndrome or patients who are lactating should continue treatment with warfarin therapy (American Society of Hematology, 2020).

Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARBs)

It is not recommended to use ACE inhibitors or ARBs for the treatment of COVID-19 outside the setting of a clinical trial (Patel and Verma, 2020).

HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitors (Statins)

It is not recommended to use statins for the treatment of COVID-19 outside the setting of a clinical trial (Fedson et al., 2020).

Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)

There should be no difference in the use of antipyretic strategies (e.g., with acetaminophen or NSAIDs) between patients with or without COVID-19 (Food and Drug Administration, 2020; Bancos et al., 2009).

Ibuprofen is an activator of ACE2 receptors; its usage can lead to increased risk of contracting COVID-19 (Fang et al., 2020).

Indomethacin

Indomethacin exhibits antiviral activity against SARS-CoV. Remarkable inhibition against SARS-CoV-infected Vero cells by more than 99% at concentrations that were non-toxic for uninfected cells has also been observed. This suggests probable efficacy of indomethacin against SARS-CoV-2 (Amici et al., 2006).

DISCUSSION

As shown in our results, clinical trials are still in progress and until now there are no definitive results for the efficacy of studied medications for management of COVID-19. Although preliminary findings for some medications are promising, others show that harms may outweigh benefits.

Nutritional interventions should be initiated as early as diagnosis is suspected to enhance patient immunity against respiratory viruses and any opportunistic bacterial respiratory infections (Zhang and Liu, 2020).

Chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir, anakinra, tocilizumab, interferons, baricitinib, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, and statins are still not recommended for COVID-19 management except in clinical trials (Vincent et al., 2005; Cao et al., 2020; Aouba et al., 2020; Cavalli et al., 2020; Sciascia et al., 2020; Al-Tawfiq et al., 2014; Arabi et al., 2019; Richardson et al., 2020; Patel and Verma, 2020; Fedson et al., 2020).

Remdesivir, nelfinavir, azithromycin, niclosamide, ivermectin, oseltamivir, indomethacin, convalescent plasma, and immune globulins have shown antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2, though clinical trials are still in progress (Rosa and Santos, 2020; Beigel et al., 2020; Caly et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2004; Amici et al., 2006; Ahn et al., 2020; Ye et al., 2020).

Dexamethasone has shown improvement in COVID-19 patients who developed Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS) and pulmonary inflammation (Horby et al., 2020).

ALA, due to its antioxidant effects, may help mitigate complications linked to viral oxidative stress (Tibullo et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2008).

Antithrombotic therapy is not used unless there is a clear indication for either prophylaxis or treatment. Low Molecular Weight Heparin (LMWH) or Unfractionated Heparin (UFH) are favored for critically ill patients, while Direct Oral Anticoagulants (DOACs) or warfarin are appropriate for stable outpatients when monitoring is feasible (American Society of Hematology, 2020).

For hospitalized, critically ill patients, LMWH or UFH may be preferred because of their shorter half-lives, intravenous or subcutaneous administration, and fewer drug-drug interactions compared with oral anticoagulants. For outpatients, warfarin or DOACs are preferred. In cases where international normalized ratio monitoring is not possible during isolation, DOAC therapy is recommended. Patients with mechanical heart valves, ventricular assist devices, valvular atrial fibrillation, or antiphospholipid antibody syndrome or lactating patients should continue warfarin therapy (American Society of Hematology, 2020).

CONCLUSION

Finally, treating physicians should consider patients' co-morbidities and efficacy of medications used in patient management. Cardiac patients taking antiarrhythmic drugs should avoid medications causing QT-interval prolongation (azithromycin, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine). Corticosteroids using in hypertensive and diabetic patients require monitoring BP and RBG. Nutritional interventions (ex: vitamin C and zinc) have important role in enhanching immunity against viral infection on long term use.

Medications that show antiviral activity against COVID-19, have proven benefits in SARS-COV2 management (remedisvir, nilfenvir, oseltamvir, azithromycin, ivermectin, niclosamid). Corticosteroids improve SIRS and respiratory symptoms associated with COVID-19 infection.

ALA has antioxidant activity and prevents oxidative stress and neuropathy associated with viral infection.

Anti-thrombotic therapy is used only when there is an indication for its use whether treatment or prophylaxis. Injectable anticoagulants are preferred in hospitalized patients while warfarin and direct oral anticoagulants are preferred in outpatients.

Other medications still do not show benefits in COVID-19 management and their use is limited to clinical trials (Chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, Lopinavir/ritonavir, anakinra, tocilizumab, Interferons, Baricitinib, ACEIs, ARBs and statins).

REFERENCES

As published

Showing references and in-text citations exactly as published.

  1. 1.Ahn, J. Y.; Sohn, Y.; Lee, S. H. et al. Use of convalescent plasma therapy in two COVID-19 patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in Korea. Journal of Korean Medical Science. 2020;35(14):e149. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2020.35.e149DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  2. 2.Agostini, M. L.; Andres, E. L.; Sims, A. C.; Graham, R. L.; Sheahan, T. P.; Lu, X. et al. Coronavirus susceptibility to the antiviral remdesivir (GS-5734) is mediated by the viral polymerase and the proofreading exoribonuclease. mBio. 2018;9(2):e00221–18. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00221-18DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  3. 3.Al-Tawfiq, J. A.; Momattin, H.; Dib, J.; Memish, Z. A.. Ribavirin and interferon therapy in patients infected with the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: An observational study. International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2014;20:42–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2013.12.003DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  4. 4.Amici, C.; Di Caro, A.; Ciucci, A.; Chiappa, L.; Castilletti, C.; Martella, V. et al. Indomethacin has a potent antiviral activity against SARS coronavirus. Antiviral Therapy. 2006;11(8):1021–1030.GOOGLE SCHOLAR
  5. 5.American College of Cardiology.. HFSA/ACC/AHA statement addresses concerns re: using RAAS antagonists in COVID-19. 2020.GOOGLE SCHOLAR
  6. 6.American Society of Hematology.. COVID-19 and VTE/anticoagulation: Frequently asked questions. 2020.GOOGLE SCHOLAR
  7. 7.Aouba, A.; Baldolli, A.; Geffray, L. et al. Targeting the inflammatory cascade with anakinra in moderate to severe COVID-19 pneumonia: Case series. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2020;79(10):1381–1382. https://doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2020-217706DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  8. 8.Arabi, Y. M.; Shalhoub, S.; Mandourah, Y. et al. Ribavirin and interferon therapy for critically ill patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome: A multicenter observational study. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2019;70(9):1837–1844. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciz544DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  9. 9.Banerjee, A.; Kulcsar, K.; Misra, V.; Frieman, M.; Mossman, K.. Bats and coronaviruses. Viruses. 2019;11(1):41. https://doi.org/10.3390/v11010041DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  10. 10.Bancos, S.; Bernard, M. P.; Topham, D. J.; Phipps, R. P.. Ibuprofen and other widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit antibody production in human cells. Cellular Immunology. 2009;258(1):18–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellimm.2009.03.008DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  11. 11.Beigel, J. H.; Tomashek, K. M.; Dodd, L. E.; Mehta, A. K.; Zingman, B. S.; Kalil, A. C. et al. Remdesivir for the treatment of Covid-19 — Preliminary report. New England Journal of Medicine. 2020;383(19):1813–1826. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2007764DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  12. 12.Borba, M. G. S.; Val, F. F. A.; Sampaio, V. S. et al. Effect of high vs low doses of chloroquine diphosphate as adjunctive therapy for patients hospitalized with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Network Open. 2020;3(4):e208857. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.8857DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  13. 13.Caly, L.; Druce, J. D.; Catton, M. G.; Jans, D. A.; Wagstaff, K. M.. The FDA-approved drug ivermectin inhibits the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Antiviral Research. 2020;178:104787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104787DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  14. 14.Cao, B.; Wang, Y.; Wen, D. et al. A trial of lopinavir-ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe Covid-19. New England Journal of Medicine. 2020;382(19):1787–1799. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001282DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  15. 15.Cavalli, G.; De Luca, G.; Campochiaro, C. et al. Interleukin-1 blockade with high-dose anakinra in patients with COVID-19, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and hyperinflammation: A retrospective cohort study. The Lancet Rheumatology. 2020;2(6):e325–e331. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2665-9913(20DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  16. 16.Chorin, E.; Dai, M.; Shulman, E. et al. The QT interval in patients with COVID-19 treated with hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin. Nature Medicine. 2020;26(6):808–809. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0888-2DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  17. 17.CredibleMeds.. Combined list of drugs that prolong QT and/or cause torsades de pointes (TDP). 2020.GOOGLE SCHOLAR
  18. 18.El-Senousey, H.; Chen, B.; Wang, J.; Atta, A.; Mohamed, F.; Nie, Q.. Effects of dietary vitamin C, vitamin E, and alpha-lipoic acid supplementation on the antioxidant defense system and immune-related gene expression in broilers exposed to oxidative stress by dexamethasone. Poultry Science. 2018;97(1):30–38. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pex281DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  19. 19.Eltahan, NH; Elsawy, NH; Abdelaaty, KM et al. Atorvastatin for reduction of 28-day mortality in severe and critical COVID-19 patients: a randomized controlled trial. Respir Res. 2024;25:97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-024-02732-2DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  20. 20.Fang, L.; Karakiulakis, G.; Roth, M.. Are patients with hypertension and diabetes mellitus at increased risk for COVID-19 infection?. The Lancet Respiratory Medicine. 2020;8(4):e21. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  21. 21.Fedson, D. S.; Opal, S. M.; Rordam, O. M.. Hiding in plain sight: An approach to treating patients with severe COVID-19 infection. mBio. 2020;11(2):e00398–20. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00398-20DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  22. 22.Food and Drug Administration.. FDA advises patients on use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for COVID-19. 2020.GOOGLE SCHOLAR
  23. 23.Gautret, P.; Lagier, J.-C.; Parola, P.; Meddeb, L.; Mailhe, M.; Doudier, B. et al. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: Results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2020;56(1):105949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  24. 24.Goldman, J. D.; Lye, D. C.; Hui, D. S. et al. Remdesivir for 5 or 10 days in patients with severe COVID-19. New England Journal of Medicine. 2020;383(19):1827–1837. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2015301DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  25. 25.Hassan, AH; Hegazy, SK; Radwan, ST.. Clinical study to evaluate the possible efficacy and safety of antibodies combination (casirivimab and imdevimab) versus standard antiviral therapy as antiviral agent against Corona virus 2 infection in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. medRxiv. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.08.20.22279020DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  26. 26.Hassan, AH; Hegazy, SK; Radwan, ST.. Clinical study to evaluate the possible efficacy and safety of antibodies combination (casirivimab and imdevimab) versus standard antiviral therapy as antiviral agent against Corona virus 2 infection in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Res Square. 2023. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1991618/v2DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  27. 27.Hegazy, SK; Hassan, AH.. Comparing the efficacy of remdesivir, favipiravir, and casirivimab and imdevimab on duration of hospitalization and ICU stay of hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Life Sci Res Commun. 2024;1(1):21–30.GOOGLE SCHOLAR
  28. 28.Hegazy, SK; Tharwat, S; Hassan, AH.. Clinical study to compare the efcacy and safety of casirivimab and imdevimab, remdesivir, and Favipiravir in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. J Clin Virol Plus. 2023;3(2):100151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcvp.2023.100151DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  29. 29.Hegazy, SK; Tharwat, S; Hassan, AH.. Comparing the efficacy of regen-cov, remdesivir, and favipiravir in reducing invasive mechanical ventilation need in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. World J Clin Cases. 2023;11(26):6105.GOOGLE SCHOLAR
  30. 30.Hegazy, SK.; Tharwat, S; Hassan, AH.. Study to compare the effect of casirivimab and imdevimab, remdesivir, and favipiravir on progression and multi-organ function of hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Open Medicine. 2023;vol. 18(no. 1):20230768. https://doi.org/10.1515/med-2023-0768DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  31. 31.Horby, P.; Lim, W. S.; Emberson, J. et al. Effect of dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: Preliminary report. medRxiv. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.06.22.20137273DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  32. 32.Kaiser, U. B.; Mirmira, R. G.; Stewart, P. M.. Our response to COVID-19 as endocrinologists and diabetologists. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2020;105(5):dgaa148. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgaa148DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  33. 33.Kim, U. J.; Won, E.-J.; Kee, S.-J.; Jung, S.-I.; Jang, H.-C.. Combination therapy with lopinavir/ritonavir, ribavirin and interferon-α for Middle East respiratory syndrome. Antiviral Therapy. 2016;21(5):455–459. https://doi.org/10.3851/IMP3002DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  34. 34.Kuba, K.; Imai, Y.; Rao, S.; Gao, H.; Guo, F.; Guan, B. et al. A crucial role of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in SARS coronavirus-induced lung injury. Nature Medicine. 2005;11(8):875–879. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1267DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  35. 35.Molina, J. M.; Delaugerre, C.; Le Goff, J.; Mela-Lima, B.; Ponscarme, D.; Goldwirt, L. et al. No evidence of rapid antiviral clearance or clinical benefit with the combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin in patients with severe COVID-19 infection. Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses. 2020;50(4):384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medmal.2020.03.006DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  36. 36.Patel, A. B.; Verma, A.. COVID-19 and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers: What is the evidence?. JAMA. 2020;323(18):1769–1770. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.4812DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  37. 37.Press Release.. Tocilizumab improves significantly clinical outcomes of patients with moderate or severe COVID-19 pneumonia. PR Newswire. 2020.GOOGLE SCHOLAR
  38. 38.Richardson, P.; Griffin, I.; Tucker, C. et al. Baricitinib as potential treatment for 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease. The Lancet Rheumatology. 2020;2(2):e30–e31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2665-9913(20DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  39. 39.Rosa, S. G. V.; Santos, W. C.. Clinical trials on drug repositioning for COVID-19 treatment. Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública. 2020;44:e40. https://doi.org/10.26633/RPSP.2020.40DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  40. 40.Sachse, G.; Willms, B.. Efficacy of thioctic acid in the therapy of peripheral diabetic neuropathy. Hormone and Metabolic Research Supplement Series. 1980;9:105–107.GOOGLE SCHOLAR
  41. 41.Hegazy, Sahar K.. The efect of combination treatment with casirivimab and imdevimab versus standard antiviral therapy on clinical outcomes in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Discover. 2024;1(71).). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44337-024-00045-3DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  42. 42.Savarino, A.; Boelaert, J. R.; Cassone, A.; Majori, G.; Cauda, R.. Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: An old drug against today's diseases. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2003;3(11):722–727. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(03DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  43. 43.Sciascia, S.; Aprà, F.; Baffa, A. et al. Pilot prospective open, single-arm multicentre study on off-label use of tocilizumab in patients with severe COVID-19. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 2020;38(3):529–532.GOOGLE SCHOLAR
  44. 44.Shakoory, B.; Carcillo, J. A.; Chatham, W. W. et al. Interleukin-1 receptor blockade is associated with reduced mortality in sepsis patients with features of macrophage activation syndrome: Reanalysis of a prior Phase III trial. Critical Care Medicine. 2016;44(2):275–281. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0000000000001402DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  45. 45.Sheahan, T. P.; Sims, A. C.; Leist, S. R.; Schäfer, A.; Won, J.; Brown, A. J. et al. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nature Communications. 2020;11(1):222. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13940-6DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  46. 46.Tsang, K.; Zhong, N. S.. SARS: Pharmacotherapy. Respirology. 2003;8(Suppl. 1):S25–S30. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1843.2003.00522.xDOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  47. 47.Tibullo, D.; Volti, G. L.; Giallongo, C.; Grasso, S.; Tomassoni, D.; Anfuso, C. D. et al. Biochemical and clinical relevance of alpha lipoic acid: Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, molecular pathways and therapeutic potential. Inflammation Research. 2017;66(11):947–959. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00011-017-1079-8DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  48. 48.Vincent, M. J.; Bergeron, E.; Benjannet, S.; Erickson, B. R.; Rollin, P. E.; Ksiazek, T. G. et al. Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virology Journal. 2005;2(1):69. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-2-69DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  49. 49.Wang, X.; Guo, X.; Xin, Q. et al. Neutralizing antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 inpatients and convalescent patients. medRxiv. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.22.20075091DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  50. 50.World Health Organization.. Situation report - 193. 2020.GOOGLE SCHOLAR
  51. 51.Wu, C. J.; Jan, J. T.; Chen, C. M.; Hsieh, H. P.; Hwang, D. R.; Liu, H. W. et al. Inhibition of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus replication by niclosamide. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2004;48(7):2693–2696. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.48.7.2693-2696.2004DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  52. 52.Wu, Y.-H.; Tseng, C.-P.; Cheng, M.-L.; Ho, H.-Y.; Shih, S.-R.; Chiu, D. T.-Y.. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency enhances human coronavirus 229E infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2008;197(6):812–816. https://doi.org/10.1086/528377DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  53. 53.Yamamoto, N.; Yang, R.; Yoshinaka, Y.; Amari, S.; Nakano, T.; Cinatl, J. et al. HIV protease inhibitor nelfinavir inhibits replication of SARS-associated coronavirus. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2004;318(3):719–725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.04.083DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  54. 54.Ye, M.; Fu, D.; Ren, Y.; Wang, F.; Wang, D.; Zhang, F. et al. Treatment with convalescent plasma for COVID-19 patients in Wuhan, China. Journal of Medical Virology. 2020;92(10):1858–1865. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25882DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  55. 55.Zeng, Q.; Yu, Z.; Gou, J. et al. Effect of convalescent plasma therapy on viral shedding and survival in COVID-19 patients. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2020;222(1):38–43. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiaa228DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  56. 56.Zhang, L.; Liu, Y.. Potential interventions for novel coronavirus in China: A systematic review. Journal of Medical Virology. 2020;92(5):479–490. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25707DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR
  57. 57.Zhang, X. W.; Yap, Y. L.. Old drugs as lead compounds for a new disease? Binding analysis of SARS coronavirus main proteinase with HIV, psychotic and parasite drugs. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry. 2004;12(10):2517–2521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2004.03.035DOIGOOGLE SCHOLAR

Cite this article

SELECT FORMAT

Hassan, A. H. (2026). Overview of Pharmacotherapy for COVID-19 Management. Life Science Research Communications, 1(3), 86–98. https://doi.org/10.5530/lsrc.1.3.17