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International Journal of Pharmaceutical InvestigationNOW IN
Review

Nanofibers in Drug Delivery Systems: A Comprehensive Scientific Review of Recent Approaches

Koushik Narayan Sarma, Chandrashekar Thalluri★, Jithendar Reddy Mandhadi★ Corresponding author

  1. 1Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Department of Pharmaceutics, Assam down town University, Panikhaiti, Guwahati, Assam, INDIA.

CORRESPONDENCE

Chandrashekar Thalluri

Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Assam down town University, Panikhaiti, Guwahati-781026, Assam, INDIA.

chandu6716@gmail.com

Received: 08-02-2024; Revised: 24-03-2024; Accepted: 20-04-2024.

Volume 14, Issue 3 · pp. 633–646 · PUBLISHED Jan-Apr 2024 · DOI: 10.5530/ijpi.14.3.75

View on IJPI original site ↗

ABSTRACT

Pharmaceutical formulations, polymer-based nanofibers, which have higher surface area per unit mass of solid, enable and contribute to functions linked to surface shape. Nanofibers can be made using a number of different methods, but only electrospinning technology has been specifically focused on producing a wide variety of these common polymer-based nanofibers. The manufacturing potential of just this method is enormous. Electrospinning is also the most versatile, as it can produce a wide range of nanowire assemblies that, with the right tweaks, might improve the performance of goods made from Nanofibers. For these reasons, it is crucial and necessary to study the many factors and procedures that go into making the best possible nanofibers. Standard processes and tools may be used to examine nanofibers’ structure, morphology, and geometry, as well as their tensile and elongation characteristics. In this article, we take a look at the various ways in which polymer composite nanofibers can be used in tissue engineering, such as in tissue scaffolds and cutting-edge wound dressings for chronic wound therapy, in addition to their potential roles in drug delivery systems, in clothing protectors, and sensors. There are just a select few of these products that have been released so far, but more nano- and bio-sciences products are expected to hit the market shortly. Polymer-based nanofibers have emerged as a result of efforts to commercialize these applications. A variety of fields, including biology, nutrition, bioengineering, pharmaceuticals, and healthcare, find this structured fiber useful.

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FULL TEXT

INTRODUCTION

Materials for nanofibers are those with a diameter smaller than 100 nanometers. A wide range of polymers, including gelatin, chitosan, collagen, CMC-carboxymethylcellulose, and PVA-polyvinyl alcohol from electrospinning, be acceptable materials for the development and production of nanofibers. Due to their higher surface area, reduced porosity, and identical unique properties, nanofibers can offer considerable advantages in wound care management.1

To aid in the recovery and healing of wounds, polymeric matrix structures, including nanofibers embedded with drugs or growth factors, demonstrate the advantages of nanofibers. These nanowires, particularly in biomedical applications, conduct unique mechanisms such as the absorption of exudates or the ability to provide anti-adhesive action (addition of drugs containing polymer-based nanofibers). Many targeted drug delivery systems also use nanofibers to control the release profile of the medication packaged in a polymer at a specific spot.2

Fabrication of nanofibers by electrospinning

Electrospinning is the most adaptable and cost-effective method for producing fine strands or filaments of the congaing drug-polymer solution when exposed to a high-voltage electric field. Compared to the typical diameter of human hair, these tiniest fibers are a thousand times smaller in diameter. The high voltage on the metal syringe provides a usual electric charge on the solution’s surface, which causes nanofibers to develop. Using a needle that shoots out a tiny stream of polymer solution, this charge is attracted to an electrically grounded collector enclosed by a piece of aluminium foil. As a syringe is charged with high voltage, nanofibers are formed on the solution’s surface, and this charge attracts an electrically grounded collector enclosed by aluminium foil. Because of voltage differences, the solvent tries to escape as it comes from the needle of a syringe.

The electrospinning technique has more advantages than disadvantages, including the ability to produce nanofibers at a fast rate, ease of setup, and the most cost-effectiveness. It also helps to maintain the desired diameter of nanofibers while using the electrospinning method.3

Influence of Parameters on Surface Morphology of electro spun Nanofibers

The following variables may influence the morphology of electro spun fibers: (i) processing variables (e.g., flow rate,4 electric potentials,5,6 capillary tip-to-collector distance,7 and collector set-up).8 (ii) system characterizations (e.g., the molecular weight of polymer,9 conductivity,10 surface tension of polymer solution,11 and viscosity).12,13 (iii) The applied electric field strength influenced the form and diameter of electro spun fibers.14 Increasing the applied voltage always increases fibre diameter, while increasing the field strength causes bead flaws in electro-spun fibers. Fibers that collapse into beads or cannot be extruded due to considerable polymer entanglement are not extremely dilute or highly concentrated.15

Reneker D. H. et al. proposed a critical role in achieving desired nanofiber sizes is played by jet size, which is a crucial step in evaporating the solution to produce nanofibers that the jet might be split into several jets, which leads to the creation of varied diameters of nanofibers (Figure 1).16

Figure 1: Poly-lactic acid nanofibers with different diameters and pores.16
Figure 2: Diagram of the electro spinning apparatus.126
Figure 3: Application fields targeted by US patents on electrospun nanofibers.59,60
Figure 4: The mechanism of hydrogen adsorption using various carbon materials. (a): activated carbon, (b): single-walled carbon nanotube, (c): graphite.61,62

When there is no splitting from the jet, and when a polymer solution is viscous, fiber diameter is also influenced. If a key is denser, it produces fibers with greater diameters.17-20

A linear relationship between viscosity and polymer concentration will exist in any solvent in which a solid polymer dissolve. As a result, a solution with higher viscosity is always larger in diameter with increasing polymer concentration.21 Deitzel et al. found that nanofiber diameters grow with increasing polymer concentration based on a power law relationship. Fiber diameter is also greatly influenced by the voltage applied to it. Higher voltage results in a larger fiber diameter because more fluid is ejected in a jet (Table 1).22,23

Table 1 Composition, solvent, concentration, and functionality and applications of polymer fibers.
AuthorsCompositionSolventConcentrationsFunctionality and Applications
Chang H.Y. et al.-201924PolymethylmethacrylateTHF, acetone, Chloroform.10 wt%Super-hydrophobic units for active packaging.
Gaaz-2015Park et al.-201825,26Polyvinyl alcoholDI water8-16 wt%1-10 wt%Biofilters and biomembranes.
Fornaguera et al.-2015.27Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid.Polysorbate 80, ethanol/ ethyl acetate4 wt%Produced through low-energy nano-emulsification.
Suwantong O. et al.-2016Potr c et al. -2015.28,29PolycaprolactoneChloroform acetone10% (W/W)Oro-mucosal drug delivery techniques show great potential.
Valente et al.-201630Poly (L-lactic acid)N, N- DMF and Dichloromethane.10 wt%Sterilize PLLA membranes for regenerative medicine applications.
Ghosh S.K. et al.-201731GelatinDI water30-50% (W/V)This biomaterial’s adaptability to tissue regeneration.
Muzzarelli et al.-2015 Haider et al.-201140,41ChitosanTFA1-6 wt%Wound healing and tissue engineering.
Wang W et al.-201632StarchDMSO, glutaraldehyde25 wt%Tissue engineering, drug therapy, and medical
Huang G.P. et al.-201533CollagenTFA42.85% (W/W)Structural fibers for tissue engineering
Mohanty C. et al.-2017 Esmaili Z et al.-201834,35PLGA-curcuminChloroform/ methanol40 wt%/60 wt%Slowly releasing curcumin
Sadeghi A.R. et al.-201636PLGA-collagenHexafluoroiso-propanol20% (W/V)Synthetic bioengineered skin
Fukunishi T. et al.-2016.37PCL-chitosanHFIP acetic acid20:1 (W/W)It promotes cellular influx, neovascularization, and neo-tissue development without degenerative changes or catastrophe.
BaradaranRafii A et al.-2015Choi M.O. et al.-201838,39PHBV-gelatinTetrafluoro-ethylene50 wt%The amniotic membrane may be used as an alternative.
Shao W et al.-201640Hydroxy apatite-tussah silk fibroinAmmonia, citric acid31 wt%Tissue and bone regeneration scaffolds
Sessini V et al.-201841Polylactic acid/PCL-cellulose nanocrystalsAcetone, DCM, toluene with phosphorus pentoxide1wt%Biodegradable packaging for biomedical or food
Saberi A et al.-2015IspirliDogac Y. et al.-201742,43PVA/alginate-bioglassDI water10 wt%Hard and soft tissue biological and mechanical properties
Dhand C. et al.-201644CaCO3-collagen/Poly catecholamineHFIP, CaCl2 solution8% (W/V), 10% (W/W)A multipurpose scaffold is required for bone tissue engineering.
Pranav Kumar Shadamarshan, R et al.-201845PCL/PVP-trans anetholeChloroform: methanol10% (W/V), 30% (W/V)We can help mend and regenerate bone by growing osteoblasts in vitro.
Unnithan, A.R. et al.-201546Polyurethane-estradiol- dextranDMSOTHF10 wt%Post menopause wound care
Shao W. et al.-201640PLGA-tussah silk-graphene oxideHFIP13 wt%Biomaterials for cancer therapy and bone regrowth
Hong B. et al.-2013 Liu C et al.-201847,48Polyvinylidene fluoride- silver-graphene oxideAcetone DMF2 wt%Magnetoelectric devices, energy harvesters
Liao N et al.-201549Poly(“-caprolactone)- cellulose acetate- tetracycline HCl-dextranDMF, THF10 wt%Strong cell adhesion and proliferation, antimicrobial activities, wound dressing and skin engineering
Table 2 Comparison of various processing methods for producing polymer Nanofiber.
AuthorProcessing methodsDescriptionsFiber dimensionsFeatures
DimensionsLength
Sadeghi A.R. et al. -1996, Z. M. HUANG et al.2003.5 5’ElectrospinningA Nanofiber-producing polymer solution or melt to get started, you need a polymer solution, two electrodes, and a direct current supply.3 nm to several μm.continuous-Easy and affordable from top to bottom -Multipurpose -continuous and randomly distributed industrial fibers.
G. F. Ward et al.-2001 B. Gu et al.-200352Melt-blownMicrofabrication processes create the orifices, and molten polymers are extruded using high-velocity hot air gas.150 to 1000 nm.continuous-orifice size affects fiber size -challenging to obtain fibres thinner than 100 nm; still under development.
P. X. Ma et al.-1999 F. Y. et al.-200453,54Phase separationComposed of five steps: dissolving, gelation, phase separation, freezing, solvent extraction, and freeze-drying.50 to 500 nm.few μm-Making Nano fibrous foam right after freeze-drying; -Making foam takes a lengthy time; -Using specific (gelling) polymers like PLLA and its mix.
J.D. Hartgerink et al.-2001 X. Yan et al.-200155,56Self-assemblyAtoms, molecules, and molecular aggregates at the micro and nanoscale form stable and geometrically well-defined functions via this process.Well below 100 nm.up to a few μm-self-assembled materials -Inorganic synthesis is not capable of producing unique properties and functioning. -In some instances, more preparation time.
C. R. Martin et al.-1996 L. Feng et al.-200257,58Template synthesisMaking nanoscale fibers using commercially available nanostructured films as templates for making them.A few to hundreds nm.μm-nanotubes and fibrils made of polymers, carbons metals -mono-dispersed fiber diameters.

Nanofibers In a different context

Polymer-based electrospun nanofibers have been intensively explored recently, notably for nanofiber composites. A US patent in this respect describes the filtering system and medical science’s dominance in detail (Figures 3 and 4). Nanofibers have several applications, including electromagnetic shielding and de-lamination of complex resistance. Many applications have not fulfilled industrial standards, although the research was done at the laboratory level. Academics, government agencies, and businesses worldwide are taking notice of and investing in these promising new technologies (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Potential applications of electro spun polymer nanofibers.

Biomedical Applications of electro spun nanofibers

The majority of the human body comprises nanofibers, including bones, dentin, collagen, and skin, according to biomedical applications. Nanometer-scale manipulation of fibrous components is well known for these components. This current study might focus on manufacturing nanofibers employing a unique electrospinning technology for bioengineering purposes. One of these new tools will thus assist in discovering their promising potential in a broad range of biological disciplines, some of which are described below (Table 4).

Table 4 Electro spun drug-loaded Nanofibers in drug-delivery applications.
AuthorRoute of ApplicationDrug incorporatedPolymer
Vashisth P, et al. 2017.68Oral routeOfloxacin/gellanPVA
Vuddanda PR et al. 2016.69Ondansetron HClPVA
Potr C T et al. 2015.70Ibuprofen/carvedilolPCL
Yu D-G et al. 2009.71IbuprofenPolyvinyl pyrrolidone
Li X et al 2013.72Caffeine/rib oflavinPVA
Nagy ZK et al. 2010.73Donepezil HClPVA
Colley HE et al. 2018.74Clobetasol-17-propionateEudragit RS100/PVP/PEO
Li C et al. -2018.75Salmon calcitoninSodium alginate/PVA
Nageh H et al. 2014.76DermalCiprofloxacin HClPVA/chitosan/PCL
Yun J et al. 2011.77KetoprofenPVA/poly(acrylic acid)/multi-walled carbon nanotubes
Suwantong O-2008.78AsiaticosideCellulose acetate
Taepaiboon P-2007.79Vitamin A acid/Vitamin ECellulose acetate
Ngawhirunpat T et al. 2009.80MeloxicamPVA
Mendes AC-2016.81Curcumin/ diclofenac/ vitamin B12Chitosan/ phospholipids
Souriyan-Reyhani pour H, et al. 2018.82Tetracycline HCl/ phenytoin NaCellulose acetate/PVA
Zhang X-2016.83OtherCollagen/salicylic acidPVA
Zhang L et al. 2018.84implantsAmoxicillinPolyethylene glycol/PLGA
Hu J et al. 2013.85Cefradine/5-fluorouracilPLGA/gelatin
Doustgani A-2017.86DoxorubicinPLA
75- Aguilar LE et al. 2015.87PaclitaxelPolyurethane/Eudragit L100-55

Nanofibers in Energy storage materials

In addition to fossil fuels, nanofibers may store various forms of energy, such as natural gas and hydrogen. These carbon-based nanofibers’ numerous huge specific areas and high pore volume have been noted. Physical adsorption can be used to deposit these natural gases and hydrogen, making the utilization of gases simple. It was therefore compared to other materials, such as graphite, activated charcoal, and carbon nanotubes in Figure 5, to see how well these nanofibers could store energy.63

Engineered fibers such as Kevlar, glass, and carbon should be used as a backbone in developing complex-based nanofibers rather than traditional (μ) fibers such as cotton. The structural qualities of complex materials, such as more remarkable ability and superior mechanical strength to mass ratios, which any other mono-type materials could not promote causes alone, are good.1

This is why they have a more significant potential for use in constructing nano-complex structures. Because of this, nanofibers have been reported to have superior mechanical qualities over microfibers made with the same materials; hence nanocomposites have been anticipated to have excellent structural capabilities. It also has a few additional advantages that regular (microfiber) complexes can’t take advantage. It is possible to generate an opaque or non-transparent complex by mixing fibers and matrix with differing refractive indexes (one of the physical properties of the solid-state). It is possible to bypass this restriction if the diameter of the fiber is so short that it exceeds the wavelength of visible light.64

Nanofibers infiltration

On the other hand, nanofibers are used in a wide range of technical applications that need filtering. For the year 2020, it was estimated that the global filtration industry would be worth up to the US $700 billion.65

Filter media with fibrous material are widely used in these applications because they increase filtering effectiveness while simulating air resistance. It is essential to remember that fiber porosity is one of the vital factors in filter performance. A typical coalescing filter is employed to extract clean compressed air in large-scale businesses. Because of the tiny oil droplets, these filter media are essential (0.3 microns).66,67 It has been discovered that the electrospinning approach can deal with micron-sized particles. On the other hand, nanometer-sized fibers in the filter structure must fulfill the requirements of the particles or droplets that may be tracked in a filter to achieve more efficient and effective filtering (Table 3).26,27

Table 3 Fiber surface area per mass of fiber material for different fiber sizes.
Fiber TypeFiber size (μm)Fiber surface area per mass of fiber material (m2/g)
Nanofibers0.0580
Spun bond fiber200.2
Melt blown fiber22

Nanofibers in tissue regeneration

Organ and tissue failure may be treated using nanofibers, which are used to create new and optimal scaffolds that can imitate the human extracellular matrix’ functions. These malfunctioning human cells can bind the tiniest diameter of nanofibers and restore the tissue well throughout this procedure. Additionally, these nanofibre scaffold materials will generate a threshold amount of template for cells to seed, migrate, and increase. Regenerative tissue and organs may be successfully regenerated using a variety of nanofiber structures, including those that promote cell deposition and tissue growth (Table 5).88-90

Table 5 Applications of the electrospun nanofibers in tissue engineering.
AuthorApplicationElectro spun material/Electro spun scaffolds
Hu J et al. 2013.91Tissue engineeringCefradine/5-fluorouracil/PLGA/gelatin
Tian L et al. 2013.100Hydroxyapatite/laminin/PLCL
Xu W et al. 2017.101Alginate/PLA
Roy T et al. 2018.102Silk fibroin/PCL
Tan GZ-2018.103Vascular graftsPCL/collagen (type I)
Fu W et al. 2014.104Gelatin/PCL and collagen/PLCL
Du F et al. 2012.105Chitosan/PCL
Vatankhah E et al. 2014.94Tecophilic/gelatin
Sankaran KK et al. 2014.95PLA/PCL
Kim MJ et al. 2008.96PLGA/smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells
Ao C et al. 2017.97Cellulose/nano-hydroxyapatite
Heydari Z-2017.98PCL/octacalcium phosphate
Li C et. al. 2006.99Silk fibroin/bone morphogenetic protein -2/hydroxyapatite
Haider A-2014.100Bone graftsPLGA/nHA/insulin
Sharifi F et. al. 2108.101PCL/carb oxymethylchitosan
Enayati MS et al. 2018.102Nanohydroxyapatite/cellulose nanofibers/PVA

Nanofibers in wound care

They also serve an essential role in treating skin burns or wounds and hemostatic devices because of the identical unique qualities of polymer-based nanofibers. Electro-spun fibers have many unique properties, including the ability to form fibrous nest-like structures and resemble fibrous mat dressings when sprayed onto the injured area of skin, which aids in the healing of wounds by mimicking the formation of average skin growth and removing scar tissue, which would be done traditionally.92,93 As a result of their tiny diameters, these non-woven fibrous mats protect the wound against bacteria penetration by administering aerosol dosages. Additionally, these nanoparticles’ 5-100 m2 surface area makes them ideal for dermal delivery system dressings and effective sorption of fluids at damaged sites (Figure 6).103,104

Figure 6: Nanofibers for wound dressings.103,104

In addition, these characteristic electros spun polymer nanofibers are used as skin care protectants for the treatment of skin healing and cleansing, either with or without the presence of various excipients. Usually, these skin care nanofibrous materials can provide a larger surface area, allowing for more straightforward application and increasing the effectiveness of medication potentiality in the skin. Since electro spun nanofibrous may be applied quickly, without discomfort, and immediately to 3-D skin photography, this unique characteristic can help minimize skin condition mechanisms (Table 6).105

Table 6 Applications of the emulsion electrospinning technique in wound dressing.
AuthorApplicationElectrospun material
Wang Z et al. 2015.5Wound dressingPCL/hyaluronan/epidermal growth factor.
Basar AO et al. 2017.6Ketoprofen/PCL/gelatin.
Garcia-Orue I et al. 2017.106Human epidermal growth factor and aloevera/PLGA.
Chitrattha S-2016.4Gentamicin sulfate/metronidazole/PLA.
Ajalloueian F et al. 2014.8PLGA/chitosan/PVA.
Fu R et al. 2016.107Sodium alginate/PVA/moxifloxacin hydrochloride.
Yao C-H et al. 2017.108Gelatin/keratin/PVA.
Saeed SM et al. 2017.109PCL/PVA/curcumin.
Wang M-2017.110Chitosan/PVA/ampicillin.
Ghalei S-2018.123PVA/zeinnano particles/Diclofenac.
Abdelgawad AM-2014.124Chitosan/silver-NPs/PVA.
Alavarse AC et al. 2017.125PVA/chitosan/tetracycline hydrochloride.
Aruan NM et al. 2017.114PVA/soursop leaves extract.
Shan Y-H et al. 2015.115Silk fibroin/gelatin.
Shin YC et al. 2016.116Hyaluronic acid/PLGA.
Alippilakkotte S 2017.117PLA/Ag NPs/Momordicacharantia fruit extract.
PLA-hyper branched polyglycerol/curcumin.
Choi JI et al. 2017.118Spirulinaextract-alginate PCL.
Rath G et al. 2016.119Collagen/silver nanoparticles.
Lee C-H et al. 2014.120PLGA/metformin

Nanofibers in drug delivery system

Medical applications rely heavily on these nanofibers, which are used for anything from medication delivery to gene therapy. Hollow carbon nanofibers, similar to nanotubes, are smaller than human blood cells and have a higher potential for transporting medications into blood cells than other nanofibers (Table 7 and Figure 7).105

Table 7 Applications of electro nano spun fibers in drug delivery system.
AuthorApplicationElectro spun material
Hu J et al. 2015.13Drug deliveryMetformin-hydrochloride/metoprololtartrate/ PCL/p oly-3-hydroxybutyric acid-co-3-hydroxyvaleric acid.
Shin J-2018.10Phytoncide/PVA.
Xu X et al. 2005.11Doxorubicin hydrochloride/PEG-PLLA.
Figure 7: Comparison of red blood cell with nanofibers.105

The list of electrospun-applied commercial products in biomedical applications are shown in Table 8.

Table 8 List of Electro spun-applied commercial products in biomedical applications. 121-125
Sl. No.ProductCompanyCountryApplications
1RIVELIN patchBioiniciaSpainDrug delivery
2PKpapyrusBiotronikGermanyCoveredstent
3ReDuradurapatchMedprinGermanyDuraplasty
4Nano fiber scaffoldsStellenbosch (SNC)SABiomedical
5Scaffolds for tissue regenerationThe Electrospinning CompanyUKBiomedical
6Antimicrobial dressingsPolyRemedyUSAWound care
7AVflo™ vasculargraftNicastIsraelBiomedical
8ReBOSSISOrthoRebirthJapanBiomedical, Synthetic bone

Overcoming challenges and prospects for electrospun polymer nanofibers

Electrospinning has advanced dramatically in the last two decades. It has shown to be a powerful method for creating a range of functional nanostructures for various purposes. Electrospinning produces nanofibers with high specific surface area, homogeneous pore size, and high porosity, which increases their performance.

Furthermore, Electro spinning has started to reach the industrial industry. DuPont, Ahlstrom, Donaldson, and others have produced electrospinning-related filtering products. The electrospinning method may also be used to build nanofiber architectures by controlling polymer content, solvent, molecular weight, and conductivity. Meanwhile, chitosan, cellulose, lignin, PLA, PCL, PEO, and PVA have been used singly or in combination111 to construct nanostructures.

Nanofibers may be used for packaging, medicine delivery, filtration, fuel cells, and other purposes. Compared to standard pharmaceutical technology, electrospun side-by-side fiber architectures may achieve innovative two-phase drug release. This sustained-release behavior may boost medication plasma concentration and quickly cure symptoms by giving a “loading dose.”112

Despite these benefits, achieving therapeutic uses of electrospun mats will need precise and repeatable control of fiber shape, structure, and homogeneity.

Also, producing electrospun scaffolds with therapeutically relevant dimensions is complex. Despite its great flexibility and cheap cost, electrospinning’s collection pace is modest, raising questions about the process’s scalability. For biomedical applications, the absence of cell infiltration has lately hindered emerging technologies such as multilayer electrospinning, cell electrospray, and dynamic cell culture. Despite these obstacles, electrospun nanofibers and novel nanostructures have wide applications in various scientific fields.113

CONCLUSION

These nanofibers and webs have a greater possibility of delivering the drug directly to the target site. Anti-adhesive materials are increasingly being created using nanofibers comprised of cellulose. Current researchers have developed conventional spin. Blood contains nanofibers, which may be used in various medical applications, including the production of surgical bandages and sutures that dissolve fast in the body. As with infection rates and blood loss, these nanofibers are rapidly absorbed by the human body. Increased efficiency and reduced time necessary for filtering may be achieved by using nanofibers. The experts at the Natick Soldier’s Center in the United States proved the effect of nanofibers on filter aids for effective aerosol dosage form filtering. As opposed to the majority of filters that use a nanofiber substrate like sintered bronze or melt-blown fabric, they are superior. These nanofiber web components are included to offer mechanical stretto optimize filtration length, stabilization, and folding. Filter media deformation with an elastic MB coating led researchers to find that covering the substrate with nanofibers improves filtering performance.

From the above discussion, the present review concluded that these electros-spun nanofibers play a vital role in biomedical applications. These systems deliver good high-release profiles that could be attained successfully by preferring the electrospinning method side-by-side, which is very difficult to fabricate by traditional conventional techniques. Finally, these polymer-based nanofibers may convey a broad range of new drugs to supplement the natural biological rhythm for maximum therapeutic results.

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Sarma, K. N., Thalluri, C., & Mandhadi, J. R. (2024). Nanofibers in Drug Delivery Systems: A Comprehensive Scientific Review of Recent Approaches. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Investigation, 14(3), 633–646. https://doi.org/10.5530/ijpi.14.3.75