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Review

Eco-Friendly Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery: Insights from Plant-Based Systems

Kirtimaya Mishra1, Asra Jabeen2, Sarojini Nayak3, Ritupriya Mohanty4, Debasis Patra1, Diptimayee Jena1★★ Corresponding author

  1. 1School of Pharmacy & Life Sciences, Centurion University of Technology & Management, Odisha, INDIA.
  2. 2Department of Pharmacy, Bharat Institute of Technology, Telangana, INDIA.
  3. 3Department of Pharmacy, Kanak Manjari Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chhend, ROURKELA.
  4. 4Department of Pharmacy, Nityananda College of Pharmacy, Odisha, INDIA.

CORRESPONDENCE

Diptimayee Jena

Miss. Diptimayee Jena, Assistant Professor, School of Pharmacy & Life Sciences, Centurion University of Technology & Management, Bhubaneswar-752050, Odisha, INDIA.

diptimayee.pharma@gmail.com

Received: 09-05-2025; Revised: 24-07-2025; Accepted: 12-09-2025.

Volume 16, Issue 1 · pp. 98–104 · PUBLISHED Jan-Mar 2026 · DOI: 10.5530/ijpi.20260472

View on IJPI original site ↗

ABSTRACT

The sustainable substitute for conventional nanomaterials, Plant-Derived Nanoparticles (PDNPs), employ green synthesis techniques to reduce their negative effects on the environment while increasing their medicinal effectiveness. Because of their low toxicity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, these nanoparticles are perfect for targeted drug administration. Plant extracts' natural bioactive qualities, like their antibacterial and antioxidant capabilities, can work in concert to improve the therapeutic outcomes of medications that are encapsulated. This study addresses the synthesis, properties, and uses of PDNPs in medication delivery, emphasizing how they may combine better patient results with environmental sustainability. Green chemistry concepts combined with nanotechnology highlight the importance of PDNPs in developing sustainable drug delivery methods. This paper discusses how environmentally friendly nanoparticles especially those made from plant-based systems are emerging to transform medication delivery.

KEYWORDS

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FULL TEXT

INTRODUCTION

Nanoparticles have significantly increased biomedical research and resulted in a new era of innovation because of enhanced payload protection and their remarkable loading capacity. Antibacterial drugs, biomedicine, bio-labelling, and agriculture are just a few of the fields where nanoparticles exhibit potential. Because of its numerous implementations in a range of domains, just like drug delivery, cancer treatments, biomarkers, cell identification, antimicrobial treatments, and diagnostics, nanoparticle research is gaining popularity (Eichhorn et al., 2022; Hassan et al., 2023; Bouafia et al., 2021). People have been using plant-based natural items as remedies to treat a variety of illnesses since ancient times. Based on customs and knowledge from the past, modern medications are mostly originated from herbs. These original natural resources provide approx 25% of primary pharmaceutical compounds along with their analogs that are now on the marketplace in general (Mohanty et al., 2017; Swamy et al., 2016). Novel drug discovery is based on natural molecules with diverse chemical bases. Recently, there has been interest in producing in synthetic form accessible lead compounds that mimic the biological properties of their equivalents in natural product-based medication development (Rodrigues et al., 2016). There are several physical, chemical, and biological ways to create nanoparticles, but biological methods are becoming more and more popular due to their ease of use, affordability, and capacity to modify the size, shape, and functions of nanoparticles (García-Quintero et al., 2021). Furthermore, the development of next-generation drug inventions, such as target-based drug delivery and discovery and the visualization of drug molecular interactions, has been facilitated by computational investigations. Considering these advantages, pharmaceutical companies are hesitant to increase their investments in drug delivery and research methods based on natural products. Instead, they are looking through the current chemical compound libraries to find promising novel medications. Neverthless, recent studies are looking into the use of natural chemicals to treat a number of serious illnesses, including diabetes, cancer, heart disease, inflammatory problems, and microbial infections. This is mostly due to the special benefits that natural medications offer, including reduced toxicity and adverse effects, cost effectiveness, and promising therapeutic outcomes. However, it is more difficult to use natural substances as medicine due to issues with their toxicity and biocompatibility. Many natural chemicals are not making it through the clinical testing stages as a result of these problems (Bonifácio et al., 2014; Thilakarathna et al., 2013; Watkins et al., 2015). In vivo instability, restricted solubility and bioavailability, poor body absorption, issues with target-specific delivery and tonic effectiveness, and probable adverse pharmacological effects are the main barriers to the use of large materials for drug administration. Therefore, addressing these significant issues may include employing cutting-edge drug delivery methods to target medications to certain bodily areas (Jahangirian et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2009). Nanomaterials, which are materials with dimensions between 1 and 100 nm, have a wide range of applications, including tissue engineering, drug delivery, microfluidics, biosensors, and microarray testing. By utilizing medicinal chemicals at the nanoscale, nanotechnology creates nanomedicines. Biomedicine, comprising nanobiotechnology, drug delivery, biosensors, and tissue engineering applications, has been transformed by nanoparticles (Mirza et al., 2014; Patra et al., 2014; Joseph et al., 2017; Arayne et al., 2007). Usually formed from atomic or molecular components, nanoparticles are tiny spheres. Smaller materials can therefore travel through the human body more readily than larger ones. The structural, chemical, mechanical, magnetic, electrical, and biological characteristics of nanoscale particles are distinct. Because of their capacity to encapsulate and deliver therapeutic pharmaceuticals to certain tissues with controlled release, nanomedicines have become increasingly popular. Nanomedicine combines nanoscience techniques with medical biology to prevent and treat diseases (Lam et al., 2017; Rudramurthy et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018). Numerous physical, chemical, and biological methods can be used to create nanoparticles; however, biological methods are gaining popularity due to their ease of use, affordability, and versatility in modifying the shape, size, as well as functionalities of nanoparticles. Implementation of nanoparticles has led to significant improvements in medicine and healthcare, particularly in the fields of therapy, diagnostics, and pharmaceutical delivery. Ultra-high-resolution imaging systems, which support early identification and therapy monitoring, have been made possible by nanoparticles. They also act like transporter in delivery systems of medications, enhancing therapeutic effectiveness along with reducing associated adverse effects. Effectively, nanoparticles are useful in regenerative medicine, wound care, and tissue engineering (Parashar et al., 2022).

Nanoparticle in Drug Delivery

While several drug delivery methods have been effectively implemented in recent years, there remain obstacles. To ensure effective medicine delivery to target areas, new technology must be created. Nano-based medication delivery systems are being researched for more improved drug delivery methods. Biocompatible nanoparticles and nanorobots are examples of nanoscale materials used in nanomedicine for diagnostics, delivery, sensing, and actuation in living things. Low solubility drugs have difficulties in biopharmaceutical delivery, such as restricted diffusion into the outer membrane, decreased bioavailability following oral ingestion, increased intravenous dosage, and possible adverse effects from conventional immunization methods. Such limitations can be overcome using nanotechnology, which can also enhance the administration of medications (Saadeh et al., 2014; Golovin et al., 2015; McNamara et al., 2015; De Jong et al., 2008). Some of the difficulties with low solubility medications' biopharmaceutical delivery include restricted bioavailability following oral administration, limited capacity to diffuse into the outer membrane, enhanced intravenous dosage, as well as possible adverse effects during conventional immunization regimens (Oliveira et al., 2014; Holzinger et al., 2014). These limitations can be overcome and medication delivery enhanced using nanotechnology. Because it can alter characteristics including solubility, drug release patterns, diffusivity, bioavailability, and immunogenicity, nanoscale drug design is the most sophisticated approach for nanoparticle applications, which may lead to improved biodistribution, a longer medication life cycle, less toxicity and adverse effects, and more practical delivery techniques (Blanco et al., 2015; Wong et al., 2015). Engineered drug delivery systems target specific locations and release therapeutic substances in a regulated manner. Self-assembly occurs when building blocks spontaneously organize into specific forms or patterns (Lu et al., 2016).

Drugs can be delivered via nanostructures in two ways: passively and actively. Hydrophobic effects are primarily responsible for the incorporation of drugs into the internal cavity of the structure. Because of their low content and hydrophobic environment, nanostructure materials target specific locations and release the desired amount of medication (Kumari et al., 2012). In contrast, the latter method involves directly conjugating medicines to a carrier nanostructure material for convenient delivery.

Both active and passive drug delivery are possible using nanomaterials or nanoformulations. Active targeting is the process of binding to receptors at the target region by combining compounds such as peptides and antibodies with a medication delivery system. A drug transporter complex moves within the systemic circulation during passive targeting as well as, attaches itself with the target site in response to variables like pH, temperature, molecular site, and shape. Lipid components, cell membrane receptors, and antigens or proteins on cell surfaces are the body's main targets (Chen et al., 2016).

Types of Nanoparticles

Nanomaterials are fundamental components of nanotechnology. Nanomaterials are defined as having at least one dimension smaller than 100 nm. Figure 1 illustrated that, Categorization of nanomaterials can be done into four groups with respect to their dimensions and three groups according to the structure of the nanoparticles (Kolahalam et al., 2019).

Figure 1: Classification of Nanoparticles.

Ecofriendly Nanoparticles

With uses in energy, agriculture, medicine, environmental remediation, and other fields, green nanoparticles have the potential to completely transform industries and help create a more sustainable future. Academics and companies looking for greener alternatives find green synthesis procedures interesting since they are economical, biocompatible, and ecologically benign. However, improving nanoparticle stability, repeatability, and size and shape control is crucial for their practical application (Osman et al., 2024). Research is primarily focused on cleaner and more environmentally friendly synthesis techniques. With enormous potential for creating nanoparticles, bio-based nanomaterial synthesis is a prospective substitute for conventional technologies. Numerous studies have shown microbes can manufacture nanomaterials. These particles can be retained intracellularly by bacterial species for use in navigation. Biomolecules like enzymes are used by living things, alike algae, plants, fungi, bacteria, along with animals, to create nanoparticles and decrease metal ions like silver (Gupta et al., 2023; Kulkarni et al., 2023). Compared to physicochemical methods, biological synthesis yields nanoparticles that are safer, more pure, and uniformly sized. Biological synthesis is an environmentally beneficial process since it adheres to green chemistry principles. The microbial activity of biologically generated nanoparticles is enhanced when biomolecules are used as stabilizing and capping agents. Microorganisms can deactivate pollutants through cooperative interactions, generate a variety of secondary metabolites, and multiply swiftly in confined spaces. Nanozerovalent iron particles can be produced by microbes (Monga et al., 2020).

Advantages and Limitations of Ecofriendly Nanoparticles

The advantages and disadvantages of these delivery systems are further examined in three sections: sustainable synthesis methods, improved drug delivery efficiency, and biocompatibility and safety.

Sustainable synthesis methods

Sustainable synthetic techniques may light the path for greener nano-delivery systems because they attempt to reduce environmental problems while maintaining performance. These strategies revolve on the use of biodegradable and nontoxic materials from renewable resources, green solvents, energy-efficient procedures with less hazardous waste, and correspond very closely with the concepts of green chemistry (Cerbu et al., 2025). Biosynthesis techniques: Despite conventional methods, bio-synthesis depends mostly on plant extracts to serve as the reducing agents and stabilization agents required to create nanoparticles, consequently offering a greener alternative (Bhardwaj et al., 2020). Plants contain an abundance of natural phytochemicals (e.g., polyphenols and flavonoids) that reduce metal ions and stabilize the produced nanoparticles. Meanwhile, crucial variables like pH, temperature, and plant extract quantity can be changed to modify the nanoparticles' size and structure (Miu et al., 2022; Mishra et al., 2024).

Improved Drug Delivery Efficiency

Novel sustainable nanodelivery technologies have opened up a new channel and demonstrated potential in improving drug delivery by increasing efficiency and overcoming limitations associated with old delivery tactics. These methods promote stability, restrict early breakdown, and even allow for tailored administration by utilizing biocompatible/biodegradable components (e.g., polysaccharides, lipids, or plant-derived polymers) (Mishra et al., 2013). Because of their nanoscale dimensions, they enable medications to transcend physiological barriers that are typically difficult to overcome with traditional therapies (for example, the blood-brain barrier). This increases therapeutic efficacy through local delivery while reducing systemic negative effects by concentrating the active material at the place of application (Hersh et al., 2022).

Biocompatibility and Safety

The biocompatibility and safety of eco-friendly nano-delivery technologies are critical for their effective application in various industries, particularly biomedicine. Biodegradable and green nanomaterials, especially those manufactured using ecologically friendly processes, have promising safety characteristics. However, toxicological studies are crucial since nanoparticles can cause serious health problems through a variety of exposure pathways, including ingestion and inhalation (Zaheer et al., 2022; Shin et al., 2015). Toxicity is controlled by nanoparticle parameters, including size and surface area. While acute toxicities have been addressed, long-term effects remain poorly understood. This highlights the necessity for rigorous chronic toxicity evaluations, not only for the eco-friendly nanodelivery system itself, but also for its combination with the active substance that is being delivered.

Synthesis of Eco-friendly Nanoparticles

Green nanoparticle production using plant components is a sustainable and environmentally beneficial strategy. This novel method reduces metal salts and produces nanoparticles by using plant extracts from leaves, stems, roots, and fruits (Figure 2). This technology produces nanoparticles with unique properties without using harsh chemicals or energy-intensive processes, reducing environmental impact. One common biosynthetic method for creating metal nanoparticles is the creation of nanozerovalent iron via plant-mediated synthesis (Majeed et al., 2021). Phytochemical substances with a range of functional groups can decrease metal ions into iron nanoparticles. Through processes fueled by superoxide, metallothioneins, glutathione, ascorbates, polyphenols, can chelate metal ions and also encourage the formation of stable nanoparticles. Combining metal ions (such as ferric or ferrous chloride) with a plant extract with an aqueous solution is such a typical synthesis method. Within minutes to hours, the extract's phenolic hydroxide groups combine with ferric or ferrous ions to form iron nanoparticles (Sahoo et al., 2022). By acting as stabilizers, biomolecules reduce the aggregation of nanoparticles. They act as stabilizing and capping agents and reduce metal ions. When it comes to producing nanozerovalent iron, plant extracts provide a number of benefits. For example, they are less poisonous and more soluble in water. Furthermore, plant extracts generate a greater number of nanoparticles with longer half-lives and a variety of forms, including irregular, square, and round. Biomolecules are used in plant extracts from leaves, stems, seeds, roots, and fruits to lower metal ions. Many different types of secondary metabolites can be found in plant components, such as proteins, enzymes, amino acids, vitamins, polysaccharides, alkaloids, flavonoids, polyphenols, and organic acids (Wu et al., 2021).

Figure 2: Synthesis of Eco-Friendly Nano Particles.

Mechanism of Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery

Green biosynthesis of nanoparticles uses biological systems like bacteria, fungi, plants, or microorganisms to produce nanoparticles and decrease metal ions. Enzymes, proteins, and metabolites are examples of biomolecules that are essential to this process. Because they may take part in complicated synthesis and catalytic events, enzymes hold great promise for biotechnology research and applications. Attaching enzymes or substrates to nanoparticle surfaces has been proven to boost catalysis (Bishnoi et al., 2018). Enzymes catalyze metabolic reactions, contributing significantly to cellular activity. Because reaction components naturally interact at the active site, the catalytic efficiency is high. Folded nucleic acids and peptides work together to arrange materials at the active site and activate heme due to their chemical complementarity (Teli et al., 2025; Bilal et al., 2023). These discoveries have major implications for developing supramolecular enzyme mimics (Chapman et al., 2019; Dhingra et al., 2010). The unique catalytic properties of enzymes are attributed to their three-dimensional folding, which organizes crucial functional groups with respect to their active site (Liu et al., 2017). One of the hardest things in catalyst design is to replicate the intricate 3-dimensional structure of the active site of an enzyme.

Applications in Drug Delivery

In industries like biomedicine, agriculture, the environment, food, sensing, and electronics, green nanomaterials have achieved tremendous strides. Green nanoparticles have several applications, including the development of efficient sensors, the improvement of food quality, the reduction of environmental pollution, electrical technology innovation, and medical diagnosis and treatment (Figure 3). Because of their distinctive form, small size, enormous surface area, special physico-chemical properties, nanoparticles thrive in a wide range of industries. Because of their adaptability and potential for broad use, green nanomaterials are an important topic of scientific and engineering research.

Figure 3: Applications of Ecofriendly Nanoparticles in various fields.

Anticancer Treatment

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide. Ongoing research aims to identify viable treatments for this cancerous condition. Chemotherapy, surgery, and radiotherapy pose significant hazards for patients. Potential risks include medication instability, damage to healthy cells, and inadequate therapeutic delivery to malignancies. It is essential to find a new treatment approach to deal with these restrictions (Sun et al., 2022; Jena et al., 2024; Garg et al., 2021). Green nanoparticles exhibit strong anticancer capabilities against several cancer cell types. Green nanoparticles showed strong anti-tumor action against a large number of cancer cells without causing any damage. Better treatment choices for this debilitating illness may result from this innovative therapy method. Nevertheless, the majority of studies do not contain in vivo testing for validation regarding the effectiveness of green nanoparticles as anti-tumor agents.

Antibacterial effects

Due to their ease of entry into the body, harmful microorganisms found in our surroundings pose a serious risk to human health. Drug resistance brought on by overuse of antibiotics has made treating many infections more difficult. The goal of ongoing research is to find antibacterial medications that effectively treat these complicated infections. Green nanoparticles have the potential to have antibacterial effects on both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Nevertheless, it is unknown what mechanisms underlie the bactericidal and growth-inhibiting actions. Nanoparticle parameters, such as shape, size, and surface area, significantly impact their ability to destroy bacterial cells. Nanoparticles may interact with cell walls/membranes or penetrate bacterial cells, causing their demise. Against a wide variety of bacterial species, green nanoparticles have demonstrated potent antibacterial qualities. The shape, size, and surface area of nanoparticles all contribute to the destruction of bacterial cells and greatly influence their antibacterial activity. Membrane rupture, deoxyribonucleic acid damage, and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) production are all part of bacterial cell disintegration. The precise interactions between nanoparticles and bacterial cells require further investigation.

Future Directions and Emerging Trends

Nanomedicine is one of the most exciting study fields nowadays. Over the past 20 years, extensive research in this subject has resulted in 1500 patents and numerous clinical trials. Nonmedical technology has greatly aided in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, as it was discussed in previous sections. In nanomedicine and nano-drug delivery systems, nanoparticles are utilized to precisely deliver drugs to tumorous or malignant cells without interfering with normal cell physiology. It is anticipated that this trend will last for decades. Even though they are widely acknowledged, nanomedicine and nano-drug delivery technologies still only slightly affect healthcare, especially the detection and treatment of cancer. The field is still in its early stages, with barely two decades of research and numerous unknown fundamentals. Future research should focus on identifying disease-specific biological markers that can be targeted without disrupting normal cell function.

CONCLUSION

Green nanotechnology has enormous potential for changing cancer therapy. Green nanotechnology integrates sustainable concepts into nanomaterial design, production, and application, providing creative solutions to overcome obstacles in traditional cancer therapies. Green nanotechnology-based drug delivery offers a sustainable and effective solution for cancer treatment due to its accurate targeting, regulated delivery, and low environmental impact. Nanotheranostics, stimuli-responsive nanomaterials, and nanoparticle-mediated immunomodulation signal a shift towards customized and complex cancer therapy techniques.

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Mishra, K., Jabeen, A., Nayak, S., Mohanty, R., Patra, D., & Jena, D. (2026). Eco-Friendly Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery: Insights from Plant-Based Systems. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Investigation, 16(1), 98–104. https://doi.org/10.5530/ijpi.20260472